Денис Александрович Шевчук
Внешнеторговый международный контракт: типовой образец, пример контракта, экономические и юридические аспекты
PREFACE
Один из способов тренировать ин. язык – обучать иностранцев русскому языку, русской литературе, философии и истории России (для чего стоит повышать их знание).
Денис Шевчук
Замечено, что многие люди не знают элементарных правил русского языка, например:
1. Количество кавычек всегда должно быть четным, как скобки в математике.
Рядом стоящие кавычки могут быть двух видов – "…" и «…» (лапки и елочки).
Правильно: "слова «слова»" или «слова "слова"»
Неправильно: «слова»» и "слова "слова"
Эти ошибки есть даже в названиях крупных фирм и некоторых статьях и книжках.
2. Если в конце предложения есть информация в скобках, точка ставится после скобок, не ставится перед скобками и внутри перед закрывающей скобкой.
Правильно: слова (слова).
Неправильно: слова. (слова.)
Менеджер – наемный управленец, начальник!What should normally be included in a sale contract and how?It would be no exaggeration to say that those with the right answers have got the key to success in the world of business.Despite (or probably due to?)the significance and complexity of this management skill and of the appropriate language,Business English teaching materials on this subject are scarce if any.
Если у вас нет ни одного подчиненного – вы не менеджер,
а максимум специалист!
Денис Шевчук
This book deals with contractual issues of interest to all companies and business people involved in international trade.It has been compiled to meet the practical language needs of professional adults who require contractual English for work and who are serious about their business.The book is designed to illustrate and clarify the English of contracts for the international sale of goods with special emphasis on the legal aspects of this type of contract.Its objective is to provide students with the appropriate English for drafting sale contracts.
The topics covered in the book are:
sources of law governing contracts for the international sale of goods (the 1980 Vienna Convention,the Civil Code of the Russian Federation)
world-wide contractual standards (Incoterms,the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts,the ICC Model International Sale Contract).
Excerpts from these documents endow the book with immediate practicability.
The book covers words and expressions that frequently occur and recur in sources of law governing contracts for the international sale of goods as well as in non-legislative world-wide contractual standards.Some of these words and collocations appear much more often in such documents than elsewhere.Others occur more generally,but are used in these documents in a particular way.Vocabulary Notes at the back of the book (Language Focus,Part 1)show what these words and collocations mean,how they are used and how they relate to each other.Exercises in Language Focus are based on the latest research into the Lexical Approach in teaching International Business English.The exercises in this section (Language Focus,Part 2)help students acquire the ability to combine words,many of which they already know,into the phrases and expressions which are the basis of contractual English.
This book can be used by students alone or in class.We strongly advise that the study of the book be followed up by a business game on drafting a sale contract.
Рекомендуем для повторения английского языка книгу Шевчук Д.А. Английский язык. Ускоренный курс: средний уровень. – М: Аст: Восток – Запад, 2007.
Дополнительно рекомендуем электронные книги (полный список в конце книги)
1. Шевчук Денис. Английский язык: самоучитель
2. Шевчук Денис. Английский для экономистов (учебник английского языка)
3. Шевчук Денис. Бизнес английский: курс бизнес английского
4. Шевчук Денис. Деловой английский: бизнес английский язык
5. Шевчук Денис. Методика изучения иностранного языка (ускоренное изучение)
6. Шевчук Денис. Письмо на английском языке: примеры, как писать (личное, деловое, резюме, готовые письма как образец)
7. Шевчук Денис. Деловой английский язык: стандартные фразы на английском
8. Шевчук Денис. Практическая и теоретическая грамматика английского языка (английская грамматика)
Электронные книги Шевчука Дениса можно скачать на сайте ЛитРес (litres.ru) по ссылке http://www.litres.ru/pages/biblio_authors/?subject=61041&lfrom=102
INTRODUCTION
The global economy has given businesses broader access than ever before to markets all over the world. Goods are sold in more countries, in larger quantities, and in greater variety. But as the volume and complexity of international sales increase, so do possibilities for misunderstandings and costly disputes if sales contracts are not adequately drafted.
Contracts are normally governed by a particular domestic law the choice of which is settled by agreement of the parties. Frequently, parties to a contract are unaware of the various laws and trading practices of their respective countries.
In order to remedy these problems, attempts have been made for the unification of rules relating to contracts for the international sale of goods. Efforts towards the international unification of contract law have essentially taken the form of binding instruments such as international conventions.
The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Vienna, 1980 is based on the assumption that uniform law, even after its incorporation into the various national legal systems, only formally becomes an integral part of the latter, whereas from a substantive point of view it does not lose its original character of a special body of law autonomously developed at the international level and intended to be applied in a uniform manner throughout the world.
Parties to international contracts of sale may also agree that their contract be governed by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts drawn up by the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law in Rome in 1994. The UNIDROIT Principles are a balanced set of rules designed for use throughout the world irrespective of the legal traditions and the economic and political conditions of the countries in which they are to be applied.
In regard to substance, the UNIDROIT Principles are sufficiently flexible to take account of the constantly changing circumstances caused by technological and economic developments that affect cross-border trade practice. At the same time they attempt to ensure fairness in international commercial relations by expressly stating the general duty of the parties to act in accordance with good faith and fair dealing and, in a number of specific instances, imposing standards of reasonable behaviour.
When drawing up a contract, buyer and seller may also refer to one of the ICC Incoterms to be sure that respective responsibilities are simply and reliably defined. By so doing they eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding and subsequent dispute.
One should also mention further development of international unification of commercial practices through model clauses or even model contracts formulated by leading experts in the field of contract law and international trade law as well as interested business circles on the basis of current trade practices. The ICC Model International Sale Contract (ICC publication № 556) was first published in 1997.
Московский государственный университет геодезии и картографии (МИИГАиК)
Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK)
[москоу стэйт юнивёсити ов джиодэзи энд картографи]
THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND LAND MANAGEMENT graduates specialists in the field of land and real-property relations:
* Urban Cadastre trains specialists in land accounting, assessment and registration;
* Organization Management trains Students in marketing and urban management, land property, operations with real estate and its insurance.
* Public and Municipal Management provides vocational training in solving problems of control, monitoring, using and protection of urban territories;
* Finance and Crediting, where students undergo training in the fields of financing activities related to real property.
THE HUMANITARIAN FACULTY provides vocational training in Jurisprudence, graduating specialists in the field of civil and criminal law, Linguistic branch.
Besides, the faculty trains specialists in Architecture, who master architectural engineering and landscape design. Training in this specialty is preceded with 1 year`s study at preparatory courses.
I am studying English at the Linguistic branch (THE HUMANITARIAN FACULTY) of Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK).
Я изучаю английский язык на Лингвистическом отделении (Гуманитарный факультет) Московского Государственного Университета Геодезии и Картографии (МИИГАиК).
Students can also get bachelor’s degree in the fields of Optoengineering, Geodesy, Land Use and Urban Cadastre while studying at the EVENING FACULTY where foreign citizens are admitted.
Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK) was established in 1779 and it is the center of higher geodetic education in Russia and the largest educational institution of this type in Europe.
Основанный 14 мая 1779 года по повелению императрицы Екатерины II Великой при Межевой канцелярии в Москве, как Землемерная школа, наш Вуз прошел славный путь от Константиновского межевого института до Московского института инженеров геодезии аэрофотосъемки и картографии (в 1993 году МИИГАиК был преобразован в Московский государственный университет геодезии и картографии).
В настоящее время в составе Московского государственного университета геодезии и картографии 7 дневных факультетов: геодезический, картографический, аэрокосмических съемок и фотограмметрии, оптического приборостроения, экономики и управления территориями, гуманитарный факультет, факультет прикладной космонавтики, а также заочный и вечерний факультеты.
Contracts are normally governed by a particular domestic law the choice of which is settled by agreement of the parties. Frequently, parties to a contract are unaware of the various laws and trading practices of their respective countries.
In order to remedy these problems, attempts have been made for the unification of rules relating to contracts for the international sale of goods. Efforts towards the international unification of contract law have essentially taken the form of binding instruments such as international conventions.
The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Vienna, 1980 is based on the assumption that uniform law, even after its incorporation into the various national legal systems, only formally becomes an integral part of the latter, whereas from a substantive point of view it does not lose its original character of a special body of law autonomously developed at the international level and intended to be applied in a uniform manner throughout the world.
Parties to international contracts of sale may also agree that their contract be governed by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts drawn up by the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law in Rome in 1994. The UNIDROIT Principles are a balanced set of rules designed for use throughout the world irrespective of the legal traditions and the economic and political conditions of the countries in which they are to be applied.
In regard to substance, the UNIDROIT Principles are sufficiently flexible to take account of the constantly changing circumstances caused by technological and economic developments that affect cross-border trade practice. At the same time they attempt to ensure fairness in international commercial relations by expressly stating the general duty of the parties to act in accordance with good faith and fair dealing and, in a number of specific instances, imposing standards of reasonable behaviour.
When drawing up a contract, buyer and seller may also refer to one of the ICC Incoterms to be sure that respective responsibilities are simply and reliably defined. By so doing they eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding and subsequent dispute.
One should also mention further development of international unification of commercial practices through model clauses or even model contracts formulated by leading experts in the field of contract law and international trade law as well as interested business circles on the basis of current trade practices. The ICC Model International Sale Contract (ICC publication № 556) was first published in 1997.
Московский государственный университет геодезии и картографии (МИИГАиК)
Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK)
[москоу стэйт юнивёсити ов джиодэзи энд картографи]
THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND LAND MANAGEMENT graduates specialists in the field of land and real-property relations:
* Urban Cadastre trains specialists in land accounting, assessment and registration;
* Organization Management trains Students in marketing and urban management, land property, operations with real estate and its insurance.
* Public and Municipal Management provides vocational training in solving problems of control, monitoring, using and protection of urban territories;
* Finance and Crediting, where students undergo training in the fields of financing activities related to real property.
THE HUMANITARIAN FACULTY provides vocational training in Jurisprudence, graduating specialists in the field of civil and criminal law, Linguistic branch.
Besides, the faculty trains specialists in Architecture, who master architectural engineering and landscape design. Training in this specialty is preceded with 1 year`s study at preparatory courses.
I am studying English at the Linguistic branch (THE HUMANITARIAN FACULTY) of Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK).
Я изучаю английский язык на Лингвистическом отделении (Гуманитарный факультет) Московского Государственного Университета Геодезии и Картографии (МИИГАиК).
Students can also get bachelor’s degree in the fields of Optoengineering, Geodesy, Land Use and Urban Cadastre while studying at the EVENING FACULTY where foreign citizens are admitted.
Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK) was established in 1779 and it is the center of higher geodetic education in Russia and the largest educational institution of this type in Europe.
Основанный 14 мая 1779 года по повелению императрицы Екатерины II Великой при Межевой канцелярии в Москве, как Землемерная школа, наш Вуз прошел славный путь от Константиновского межевого института до Московского института инженеров геодезии аэрофотосъемки и картографии (в 1993 году МИИГАиК был преобразован в Московский государственный университет геодезии и картографии).
В настоящее время в составе Московского государственного университета геодезии и картографии 7 дневных факультетов: геодезический, картографический, аэрокосмических съемок и фотограмметрии, оптического приборостроения, экономики и управления территориями, гуманитарный факультет, факультет прикладной космонавтики, а также заочный и вечерний факультеты.
Check Questions
What are the sources of law governing contracts for the international sale of goods?
On what assumption is the 1980 Vienna Convention based?
What documents provide a system of rules especially tailored to the needs of international commercial transactions?
On what assumption is the 1980 Vienna Convention based?
What documents provide a system of rules especially tailored to the needs of international commercial transactions?
I. INTERNATIONAL RULES RELATING TO CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS
SOURCES OF LAW GOVERNING CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS
RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, article 15(4) and article 7(1) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (CC RF) Russia’s international agreements form an integral part of its legal system.
В соответствии с Конституцией Российской Федерации (п.4 ст.15)и соответствующим ей правилом Гражданского Кодекса Российской Федерации (ГК РФ)(п.1 ст.7)международные договоры Российской Федерации являются частью ее правовой системы.
Article 7(2) CC RF also stipulates that if an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil legislation, the rules of the international treaty shall apply.
Согласно п.2 ст.7 ГК РФ, если международным договором Российской Федерации установлены иные правила, чем предусмотренные законом, то применяются правила международного договора.
The general rule is that provisions in an international agreement itself should determine whether to apply CC RF provisions instead of those formulated in the international agreement, or whether to apply the CC RF as a subsidiary statute when the international agreement contains gaps and when Russian legislation is the governing law.
Общее правило состоит в том, что положения самого международного договора определяют возможность применения положений ГК РФ вместо положений международного договора или в качестве дополнительного статуса, в последнем случае – для восполнения пробелов, имеющихся в международном договоре.
RUSSIAN LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, article 15(4) and article 7(1) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (CC RF) Russia’s international agreements form an integral part of its legal system.
В соответствии с Конституцией Российской Федерации (п.4 ст.15)и соответствующим ей правилом Гражданского Кодекса Российской Федерации (ГК РФ)(п.1 ст.7)международные договоры Российской Федерации являются частью ее правовой системы.
Article 7(2) CC RF also stipulates that if an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil legislation, the rules of the international treaty shall apply.
Согласно п.2 ст.7 ГК РФ, если международным договором Российской Федерации установлены иные правила, чем предусмотренные законом, то применяются правила международного договора.
The general rule is that provisions in an international agreement itself should determine whether to apply CC RF provisions instead of those formulated in the international agreement, or whether to apply the CC RF as a subsidiary statute when the international agreement contains gaps and when Russian legislation is the governing law.
Общее правило состоит в том, что положения самого международного договора определяют возможность применения положений ГК РФ вместо положений международного договора или в качестве дополнительного статуса, в последнем случае – для восполнения пробелов, имеющихся в международном договоре.
Check Questions
What is the legal status of international agreements under Russian law?
What law shall apply if an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil legislation?
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS,VIENNA,1980
In relation to the 1980 Vienna Convention, if an international contract of sale falls under its sphere of operation, the application of national civil legislation is permitted if the parties excluded the application of the 1980 Vienna Convention in full or in part or derogated from any of its provisions. According to article 6 of the Vienna Convention "the parties may exclude the application of this Convention or, subject to article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions". It follows from this that the 1980 Vienna Convention is dispositive in character.
Что касается Венской конвенции 1980 года, то если соответствующий договор международной купли-продажи подпадает под сферу ее действия, применение национального гражданского законодательства допускается, когда стороны договора полностью или в соответствующей части исключили применение Венской конвенции 1980 года. Ее статья 6 гласит: "Стороны могут исключить применение настоящей Конвенции либо, при условии соблюдения статьи 12, отступить от любого из ее положений или изменить его действие".Из этого следует, что Венская конвенция 1980 года носит диспозитивный характер.
It should also be noted that when matters governed by the 1980 Vienna Convention are not expressly settled and cannot be settled in conformity with the general principles on which the 1980 Vienna Convention is based, these matters are subject to applicable Russian civil legislation. This is how article 7(2) of the 1980 Vienna Convention runs: "Questions concerning matters governed by this Convention which are not expressly settled in it are to be settled in conformity with the general principles on which it is based or, in the absence of such principles, in conformity with the law applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law".
Следует также отметить, что когда вопрос, относящийся к предмету ее регулирования, прямо в Конвенции не разрешен и не может быть разрешен в соответствии с общими принципами, на которых Венская конвенция 1980 года основана, то в силу норм международного частного права применимо российское гражданское законодательство. Статья 7(2)Венской конвенции 1980 года гласит: "Вопросы, относящиеся к предмету регулирования настоящей Конвенции, которые прямо в ней не разрешены, подлежат разрешению в соответствии с общими принципами, на которых она основана, а при отсутствии таких принципов – в соответствии с правом, применимым в силу норм международного частного права".
One should keep in mind the fundamental differences manifested in approaches to identifying the sphere of application of the 1980 Vienna Convention and those rules set forth in the CC RF which govern the sale of goods.
Необходимо учитывать принципиальные отличия, имеющиеся в подходе к определению сферы применения Венской конвенции 1980 года и норм Гражданского Кодекса Российской Федерации, регулирующих куплю-продажу.
The sphere of application of an international agreement is determined by the agreement’s own precepts. According to article 1(1) of the 1980 Vienna Convention, this treaty applies to international contracts of sale of goods between parties whose commercial enterprises (i.e., principal places of business) are in different countries when a) the countries are Contracting States (i. e., parties to the 1980 Vienna Convention), or when b) the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State.
Сфера применения международного договора определяется положениями самого договора. Согласно статье 1(1)Венской конвенции 1980 года, Конвенция применяется к договорам купли-продажи товаров между сторонами, коммерческие предприятия (т. е. основные места бизнеса)которых находятся в разных государствах: а)когда эти государства являются Договаривающимися государствами (т. е. участниками Венской конвенции 1980 года)или б)когда, согласно нормам международного частного права, применимо право Договаривающегося государства.
Hence, for the 1980 Vienna Convention to apply, parties to a contract must have their commercial enterprises located in different countries. It follows from this that a contract concluded by subjects of different countries whose commercial enterprises are located in the same country is not recognized as an international contract of sale, within the meaning of the 1980 Vienna Convention. Therefore, the contract would not be subject to the provisions of the 1980 Vienna Convention. Such a contract, if falling under Russian law, is governed by provisions set forth in the CC RF.
Следовательно, обязательным условием применения Венской конвенции 1980 года является нахождение коммерческих предприятий сторон договора в разных государствах. Из этого следует, что договор, заключенный предпринимателями разной государственной принадлежности, коммерческие предприятия которых находятся на территории одного государства, не признается в смысле Конвенции договором международной купли-продажи и соответственно к нему не применимы ее положения. Такой договор, если к нему применимо российское право, регулируется нормами Гражданского Кодекса РФ.
The 1980 Vienna Convention’s application is expressly ruled out in article 2 with respect to specific goods, namely, ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft, electricity, and securities. At the same time, transactions involving such goods are either subject to the rules of the applicable law, e. g. the CC RF or, as stipulated by the provisions on securities in article 454(2) of the CC RF, are to be governed by general regulations on the sale of goods. This would be the case unless special rules are in effect for their sale.
Прямо исключено применение Венской конвенции в отношении определенных видов товаров (статья 2), в частности, судов водного и воздушного транспорта, судов на воздушной подушке, электроэнергии, ценных бумаг. В то же время сделки с ними либо подпадают под действие норм применимого права, например Гражданского Кодекса РФ, либо, как это предусмотрено в отношении ценных бумаг (п.2 ст.454 Гражданского Кодекса РФ), регулируются общими положениями о купле-продаже, если законом не установлены специальные правила их купли-продажи.
The 1980 Vienna Convention does not apply to goods bought for personal, family, or household use if the seller – at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract – either knew or ought to have known that the goods were bought for such use. Nor does it apply to sales by auction, on execution or otherwise by the authority of law according to article 2.
Венская конвенция 1980 года не применяется в отношении товаров для личного, семейного или домашнего использования, за исключением случаев, когда продавец в любое время до или в момент заключения договора не знал и не должен был знать, что товары приобретаются для такого использования. Не применяется она и к продажам с аукциона в порядке исполнительного производства или иным образом в силу закона (ст.2 Конвенции).
The 1980 Vienna Convention is limited to formation of a contract of sale and the rights and obligations of seller and buyer arising from such a contract. In particular, this Convention is not concerned with the validity of such a contract, its provisions or usage, or with the effect the contract may have on goods sold. Moreover, under article 5 of this Convention, the seller is not liable for death or personal injury caused by the goods to any person.
Венская конвенция 1980 года регулирует только заключение договора и те права и обязанности продавца и покупателя, которые возникают из такого договора. В частности, по общему правилу она не касается действительности самого договора или каких-либо из его положений, либо любого обычая или последствий, которые может иметь договор в отношении права собственности на проданный товар (ст.4 Конвенции). Более того, не применяется она и в отношении ответственности продавца за товар, т. е. за причиненные товаром повреждения здоровья или смерть какого-либо лица (ст.5 Конвенции).
It should also be noted that the 1980 Vienna Convention does not set any rules to govern the choice of applicable law.
Следует также отметить, что Венская конвенция 1980 года не регулирует выбор применимого права.
What law shall apply if an international treaty of the Russian Federation has established rules other than those provided by civil legislation?
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF GOODS,VIENNA,1980
In relation to the 1980 Vienna Convention, if an international contract of sale falls under its sphere of operation, the application of national civil legislation is permitted if the parties excluded the application of the 1980 Vienna Convention in full or in part or derogated from any of its provisions. According to article 6 of the Vienna Convention "the parties may exclude the application of this Convention or, subject to article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions". It follows from this that the 1980 Vienna Convention is dispositive in character.
Что касается Венской конвенции 1980 года, то если соответствующий договор международной купли-продажи подпадает под сферу ее действия, применение национального гражданского законодательства допускается, когда стороны договора полностью или в соответствующей части исключили применение Венской конвенции 1980 года. Ее статья 6 гласит: "Стороны могут исключить применение настоящей Конвенции либо, при условии соблюдения статьи 12, отступить от любого из ее положений или изменить его действие".Из этого следует, что Венская конвенция 1980 года носит диспозитивный характер.
It should also be noted that when matters governed by the 1980 Vienna Convention are not expressly settled and cannot be settled in conformity with the general principles on which the 1980 Vienna Convention is based, these matters are subject to applicable Russian civil legislation. This is how article 7(2) of the 1980 Vienna Convention runs: "Questions concerning matters governed by this Convention which are not expressly settled in it are to be settled in conformity with the general principles on which it is based or, in the absence of such principles, in conformity with the law applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law".
Следует также отметить, что когда вопрос, относящийся к предмету ее регулирования, прямо в Конвенции не разрешен и не может быть разрешен в соответствии с общими принципами, на которых Венская конвенция 1980 года основана, то в силу норм международного частного права применимо российское гражданское законодательство. Статья 7(2)Венской конвенции 1980 года гласит: "Вопросы, относящиеся к предмету регулирования настоящей Конвенции, которые прямо в ней не разрешены, подлежат разрешению в соответствии с общими принципами, на которых она основана, а при отсутствии таких принципов – в соответствии с правом, применимым в силу норм международного частного права".
One should keep in mind the fundamental differences manifested in approaches to identifying the sphere of application of the 1980 Vienna Convention and those rules set forth in the CC RF which govern the sale of goods.
Необходимо учитывать принципиальные отличия, имеющиеся в подходе к определению сферы применения Венской конвенции 1980 года и норм Гражданского Кодекса Российской Федерации, регулирующих куплю-продажу.
The sphere of application of an international agreement is determined by the agreement’s own precepts. According to article 1(1) of the 1980 Vienna Convention, this treaty applies to international contracts of sale of goods between parties whose commercial enterprises (i.e., principal places of business) are in different countries when a) the countries are Contracting States (i. e., parties to the 1980 Vienna Convention), or when b) the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State.
Сфера применения международного договора определяется положениями самого договора. Согласно статье 1(1)Венской конвенции 1980 года, Конвенция применяется к договорам купли-продажи товаров между сторонами, коммерческие предприятия (т. е. основные места бизнеса)которых находятся в разных государствах: а)когда эти государства являются Договаривающимися государствами (т. е. участниками Венской конвенции 1980 года)или б)когда, согласно нормам международного частного права, применимо право Договаривающегося государства.
Hence, for the 1980 Vienna Convention to apply, parties to a contract must have their commercial enterprises located in different countries. It follows from this that a contract concluded by subjects of different countries whose commercial enterprises are located in the same country is not recognized as an international contract of sale, within the meaning of the 1980 Vienna Convention. Therefore, the contract would not be subject to the provisions of the 1980 Vienna Convention. Such a contract, if falling under Russian law, is governed by provisions set forth in the CC RF.
Следовательно, обязательным условием применения Венской конвенции 1980 года является нахождение коммерческих предприятий сторон договора в разных государствах. Из этого следует, что договор, заключенный предпринимателями разной государственной принадлежности, коммерческие предприятия которых находятся на территории одного государства, не признается в смысле Конвенции договором международной купли-продажи и соответственно к нему не применимы ее положения. Такой договор, если к нему применимо российское право, регулируется нормами Гражданского Кодекса РФ.
The 1980 Vienna Convention’s application is expressly ruled out in article 2 with respect to specific goods, namely, ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft, electricity, and securities. At the same time, transactions involving such goods are either subject to the rules of the applicable law, e. g. the CC RF or, as stipulated by the provisions on securities in article 454(2) of the CC RF, are to be governed by general regulations on the sale of goods. This would be the case unless special rules are in effect for their sale.
Прямо исключено применение Венской конвенции в отношении определенных видов товаров (статья 2), в частности, судов водного и воздушного транспорта, судов на воздушной подушке, электроэнергии, ценных бумаг. В то же время сделки с ними либо подпадают под действие норм применимого права, например Гражданского Кодекса РФ, либо, как это предусмотрено в отношении ценных бумаг (п.2 ст.454 Гражданского Кодекса РФ), регулируются общими положениями о купле-продаже, если законом не установлены специальные правила их купли-продажи.
The 1980 Vienna Convention does not apply to goods bought for personal, family, or household use if the seller – at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract – either knew or ought to have known that the goods were bought for such use. Nor does it apply to sales by auction, on execution or otherwise by the authority of law according to article 2.
Венская конвенция 1980 года не применяется в отношении товаров для личного, семейного или домашнего использования, за исключением случаев, когда продавец в любое время до или в момент заключения договора не знал и не должен был знать, что товары приобретаются для такого использования. Не применяется она и к продажам с аукциона в порядке исполнительного производства или иным образом в силу закона (ст.2 Конвенции).
The 1980 Vienna Convention is limited to formation of a contract of sale and the rights and obligations of seller and buyer arising from such a contract. In particular, this Convention is not concerned with the validity of such a contract, its provisions or usage, or with the effect the contract may have on goods sold. Moreover, under article 5 of this Convention, the seller is not liable for death or personal injury caused by the goods to any person.
Венская конвенция 1980 года регулирует только заключение договора и те права и обязанности продавца и покупателя, которые возникают из такого договора. В частности, по общему правилу она не касается действительности самого договора или каких-либо из его положений, либо любого обычая или последствий, которые может иметь договор в отношении права собственности на проданный товар (ст.4 Конвенции). Более того, не применяется она и в отношении ответственности продавца за товар, т. е. за причиненные товаром повреждения здоровья или смерть какого-либо лица (ст.5 Конвенции).
It should also be noted that the 1980 Vienna Convention does not set any rules to govern the choice of applicable law.
Следует также отметить, что Венская конвенция 1980 года не регулирует выбор применимого права.
Check Questions
Is the 1980 Vienna Convention imperative or dispositive in character?
The 1980 Vienna Convention. What is the sphere of its application?
How many countries have signed the 1980 Vienna Convention?
Does this Convention set any rules to govern the choice of law?
WORLD-WIDE CONTRACTUAL STANDARDS
INCOTERMS,THE ICC OFFICIAL RULES FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF TRADE TERMS
TERMS THE WORLD TRADES BY
In every international trade transaction certain questions must be answered:
Who will arrange and pay for the transfer of goods from the seller’s works/ factory/warehouse to the buyer’s premises?
Who will bear the risk if these operations cannot be carried out?Who will bear the risk of loss of or damage to the goods in transit?
The various national laws, of course, contain various solutions for each of these questions. However, one party to an international sales contract may hesitate to subject itself to the national laws and procedures of the other. This is why international commercial terms, or standardised trade terms, have been developed, notably by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) – the Incoterms.
With Incoterms, the ICC set out to overcome the problems of conflicting national laws and interpretations by establishing a standard set of trade terms and definitions that offer neutral rules and practices. They have been decided upon after thorough discussions between experts representing businessmen from all over the world.
The Incoterms were first published in 1936, since then they have been regularly updated to keep pace with the development of international trade. Amendments and additions were made in 1953, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1990 and presently in 2000.
In view of the changes made to Incoterms from time to time, it is important to ensure that where the parties intend to incorporate Incoterms into a contract of sale, an express reference be made to the current version of Incoterms. The absence of such reference may result in disputes as to whether the parties intended to incorporate as part of their contract that version or an earlier version.
The Incoterms become part of a sales contract if seller and buyer so agree by simple reference to one of the trade terms expressly stating that the contract should be interpreted according to a particular Incoterm, e. g. C.I.F. Incoterms 2000.
It should be noted that special provisions in individual contracts will override anything provided in Incoterms. Parties may adopt Incoterms as a general basis of a contract but may also specify variations or additions to fit a contract to a particular trade or to particular needs. In this context, it is important to bear in mind that Incoterms are premised on the seller’s minimum liability. In an individual contract, the buyer therefore may wish to increase the seller’s obligation.
It should also be kept in mind that reference to a particular Incoterm is not sufficient to determine the full legal relationship between parties to a contract of sale. Matters such as breach of contract and its consequences, as well as the difficult problem of ownership of goods, are outside the scope of the trade terms.
The scope of Incoterms is limited to matters relating to the rights and obligations of the parties to the contract of sale with respect to the delivery of goods sold. Their basic purpose is to explain how responsibility, cost and risk should be divided between the parties in connection with the delivery of goods from seller to buyer.
To establish this division, the point at which goods are considered delivered from seller to buyer under the respective terms must be indicated. Normally, at this point (the "critical point"), the obligation to arrange for further transport of goods and to assume further costs and risks is transferred from seller to buyer. Under some trade terms, the "critical points" for the transfer of costs and risks do not coincide.
There are two particular misconceptions about Incoterms:
they are frequently misunderstood as applying to a contract of carriage rather than to a contract of salethey are sometimes wrongly assumed to provide for all the obligations which parties may wish to include in a contract of sale.
These misconceptions are very common although the ICC has always stressed that Incoterms deal only with the relation between sellers and buyers under a contract of sale, and, moreover, only do so in some particular and very distinct respects.
Incoterms 2000
Incoterms 2000 bring the official ICC rules for the interpretation of the most commonly used trade terms in line with the current international trade practices:
recent spread of customs-free zonesincreased use of electronic communications in business transactionschanges in transport techniques.
In their 2000 revised version, Incoterms concentrate on the thirteen most important trade terms and offer a simpler and clearer presentation of them. The use of different expressions to convey the same meaning has been avoided. Moreover, whenever possible, the same expressions as appear in the 1980 Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods have been used.
The following is the complete list of Incoterms 2000 in their abbreviated form, full form and in a Russian translation.
As is clearly seen from the list, the terms are grouped in four basically different categories:
• the «E» term whereby the seller simply makes the goods available to the buyer at the seller’s own premises. This term represents the minimum obligation for the seller (and the maximum obligation for the buyer).
• the «F» terms FCA, FAS, FOB whereby the seller is asked to deliver the goods to a carrier appointed by the buyer.
• the «C» terms CFR, CIF, CPT, CIP whereby the seller contracts for carriage without taking the risk of loss or damage to goods or additional costs due to events occurring after shipment and dispatch.
• the «D» terms DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP whereby the seller bears all costs and risks needed to bring goods to place of destination.
The respective obligations of parties under each term are grouped under ten headings. Each heading on the seller’s side has its equivalent on the buyer’s side.
At first glance, it would seem best that each of the contracting parties limit its obligation as much as possible. The seller would then try to negotiate an Ex Works contract while the buyer would try to persuade the seller to deliver goods duty paid to the buyer’s premises. In practice, however, the situation is not that simple. A seller or a buyer cannot easily make a better contract merely by shifting functions, costs and risks to a contracting party. The parties involved will probably be guided by the following criteria:
Market situation
In a highly competitive market, the seller may wish to offer prices to the buyer that are comparable to prices offered in the buyer’s domestic market. The seller would then undertake to deliver the goods using the DDP term. As a minimum the seller would be obliged to arrange and pay for transportation by using the CIF term. One should remember that additional costs and risks accepted by the seller are always reflected in the price.
Control of transport and insurance
In some instances an exporter of large and regular volumes of goods may be in a position to obtain better terms from carriers and insurers than the occasional importer. It may be comparatively simple to arrange the transport in the country of export and the risk of something going wrong will be minimal. In such cases there is really no reason why the seller should limit his obligations under an Ex Works or FOB agreement. He could just as well accept a further obligation to arrange and pay for the carriage and insurance on CIF terms.
Sellers and buyers are not always prepared to accept risk of loss and damage to goods, or the risk of cost increases or circumstances hindering transport, in a foreign country. Under normal conditions of trade between countries with well-organized container ports and comparatively peaceful labour conditions, the risk of political disturbances, congestion in the ports, strikes or interruptions of trade may be minimal. In such cases, the seller may be prepared to assume the risk during transport, and to choose a term in which his responsibilities extend to the arrival of goods at destination (Delivered Duty Paid).
Government involvement
Directly or indirectly, government authorities may guide or even instruct parties in their country to sell on CIF terms and to buy on FOB terms. There are several reasons for this:
• trade terms constitute an important tool for directing the flow of goods to national shipping lines or other national carriers. They can also be used to promote the domestic insurance market.
• saving foreign currency. A seller who has undertaken to pay for carriage and insurance will include these costs in his price, and thereby obtain more foreign currency. On the other hand, a buyer who has assumed these costs will pay less for the actual goods, and may sometimes be able to pay for transportation and insurance services in domestic currency.
Use of exception clauses
It must be remembered that trade terms extending the seller’s obligations to delivery in the buyer’s country will not only mean additional costs for the seller but also additional risks. The risk of loss of goods or damage is perhaps not primarily important, since it is normally covered by cargo insurance.
Risks of cost increases and hindrances of various types are much more serious. Unforeseen events – such as the imposition of duties, other government interventions, labour disturbances, war or warlike operations – may put a heavy burden on the seller.
To a certain extent such risks may be modified and divided between the parties under terms other than Incoterms. Depending upon their wording, these terms may provide more or less protection; such protection, however, is seldom complete.
In view of the importance of Incoterms for international trade, we quote here five most frequently used terms from the ICC Incoterms 2000 (ICC publication № 560): EXW, FOB, CIF, CIP, DDP. In the following, each of the five Incoterms is briefly described, highlighting the main obligations of seller and buyer. The sections "The seller’s obligations"/ "The buyer’s obligations" serve at the same time as a checklist.
EXW, EX WORKS (…named place)
"Ex works" means that the seller delivers when he places the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the seller’s premises or another named place (i.e. works, factory, warehouse, etc.) not cleared for export and not loaded on any collecting vehicle.
This term thus represents the minimum obligation for the seller, and the buyer has to bear all costs and risks involved in taking the goods from the seller’s premises.
However, if the parties wish the seller to be responsible for the loading of the goods on departure and to bear the risks and all the costs of such loading, this should be made clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sale. This term should not be used when the buyer cannot carry out the export formalities directly or indirectly. In such circumstances, the FCA term should be used, provided the seller agrees that he will load at his cost and risk.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must render the buyer, at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining, where applicable, any export licence or other official authorization necessary for the export of the goods.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
A4 Delivery
The seller must place the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the named place of delivery, not loaded on any collecting vehicle, on the date or within the period agreed or, if no such time is agreed, at the usual time for delivery of such goods. If no specific point has been agreed within the named place, and if there are several points available, the seller may select the point at the place of delivery which best suits his purpose.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice as to when and where the goods will be placed at his disposal.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
No obligation.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to make the goods of the contract description available unpacked) which is required for the transport of the goods, to the extent that the circumstances relating to the transport (for example modalities, destination) are made known to the seller before the contract of sale is concluded. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must render the buyer at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages issued or transmitted in the country of delivery and/or of origin which the buyer may require for the export and/or import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must obtain at his own risk and expense any export and import licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities for the export of the goods.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must take delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4 and A7/B7.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods
• from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• from the agreed date or the expiry date of any period fixed for taking delivery which arise because he fails to give notice in accordance with B7, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• any additional costs incurred by failing either to take delivery of the goods when they have been placed at his disposal, or to give appropriate notice in accordance with B7 provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
• where applicable, all duties, taxes and other charges as well as the costs of carrying out customs formalities payable upon export.
The buyer must reimburse all costs and charges incurred by the seller in rendering assistance in accordance with A2.
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must, whenever he is entitled to determine the time within an agreed period and/or the place of taking delivery, give the seller sufficient notice thereof.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
The 1980 Vienna Convention. What is the sphere of its application?
How many countries have signed the 1980 Vienna Convention?
Does this Convention set any rules to govern the choice of law?
WORLD-WIDE CONTRACTUAL STANDARDS
INCOTERMS,THE ICC OFFICIAL RULES FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF TRADE TERMS
TERMS THE WORLD TRADES BY
In every international trade transaction certain questions must be answered:
Who will arrange and pay for the transfer of goods from the seller’s works/ factory/warehouse to the buyer’s premises?
Who will bear the risk if these operations cannot be carried out?Who will bear the risk of loss of or damage to the goods in transit?
The various national laws, of course, contain various solutions for each of these questions. However, one party to an international sales contract may hesitate to subject itself to the national laws and procedures of the other. This is why international commercial terms, or standardised trade terms, have been developed, notably by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) – the Incoterms.
With Incoterms, the ICC set out to overcome the problems of conflicting national laws and interpretations by establishing a standard set of trade terms and definitions that offer neutral rules and practices. They have been decided upon after thorough discussions between experts representing businessmen from all over the world.
The Incoterms were first published in 1936, since then they have been regularly updated to keep pace with the development of international trade. Amendments and additions were made in 1953, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1990 and presently in 2000.
In view of the changes made to Incoterms from time to time, it is important to ensure that where the parties intend to incorporate Incoterms into a contract of sale, an express reference be made to the current version of Incoterms. The absence of such reference may result in disputes as to whether the parties intended to incorporate as part of their contract that version or an earlier version.
The Incoterms become part of a sales contract if seller and buyer so agree by simple reference to one of the trade terms expressly stating that the contract should be interpreted according to a particular Incoterm, e. g. C.I.F. Incoterms 2000.
It should be noted that special provisions in individual contracts will override anything provided in Incoterms. Parties may adopt Incoterms as a general basis of a contract but may also specify variations or additions to fit a contract to a particular trade or to particular needs. In this context, it is important to bear in mind that Incoterms are premised on the seller’s minimum liability. In an individual contract, the buyer therefore may wish to increase the seller’s obligation.
It should also be kept in mind that reference to a particular Incoterm is not sufficient to determine the full legal relationship between parties to a contract of sale. Matters such as breach of contract and its consequences, as well as the difficult problem of ownership of goods, are outside the scope of the trade terms.
The scope of Incoterms is limited to matters relating to the rights and obligations of the parties to the contract of sale with respect to the delivery of goods sold. Their basic purpose is to explain how responsibility, cost and risk should be divided between the parties in connection with the delivery of goods from seller to buyer.
To establish this division, the point at which goods are considered delivered from seller to buyer under the respective terms must be indicated. Normally, at this point (the "critical point"), the obligation to arrange for further transport of goods and to assume further costs and risks is transferred from seller to buyer. Under some trade terms, the "critical points" for the transfer of costs and risks do not coincide.
There are two particular misconceptions about Incoterms:
they are frequently misunderstood as applying to a contract of carriage rather than to a contract of salethey are sometimes wrongly assumed to provide for all the obligations which parties may wish to include in a contract of sale.
These misconceptions are very common although the ICC has always stressed that Incoterms deal only with the relation between sellers and buyers under a contract of sale, and, moreover, only do so in some particular and very distinct respects.
Incoterms 2000
Incoterms 2000 bring the official ICC rules for the interpretation of the most commonly used trade terms in line with the current international trade practices:
recent spread of customs-free zonesincreased use of electronic communications in business transactionschanges in transport techniques.
In their 2000 revised version, Incoterms concentrate on the thirteen most important trade terms and offer a simpler and clearer presentation of them. The use of different expressions to convey the same meaning has been avoided. Moreover, whenever possible, the same expressions as appear in the 1980 Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods have been used.
The following is the complete list of Incoterms 2000 in their abbreviated form, full form and in a Russian translation.
• the «E» term whereby the seller simply makes the goods available to the buyer at the seller’s own premises. This term represents the minimum obligation for the seller (and the maximum obligation for the buyer).
• the «F» terms FCA, FAS, FOB whereby the seller is asked to deliver the goods to a carrier appointed by the buyer.
• the «C» terms CFR, CIF, CPT, CIP whereby the seller contracts for carriage without taking the risk of loss or damage to goods or additional costs due to events occurring after shipment and dispatch.
• the «D» terms DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP whereby the seller bears all costs and risks needed to bring goods to place of destination.
The respective obligations of parties under each term are grouped under ten headings. Each heading on the seller’s side has its equivalent on the buyer’s side.
At first glance, it would seem best that each of the contracting parties limit its obligation as much as possible. The seller would then try to negotiate an Ex Works contract while the buyer would try to persuade the seller to deliver goods duty paid to the buyer’s premises. In practice, however, the situation is not that simple. A seller or a buyer cannot easily make a better contract merely by shifting functions, costs and risks to a contracting party. The parties involved will probably be guided by the following criteria:
Market situation
In a highly competitive market, the seller may wish to offer prices to the buyer that are comparable to prices offered in the buyer’s domestic market. The seller would then undertake to deliver the goods using the DDP term. As a minimum the seller would be obliged to arrange and pay for transportation by using the CIF term. One should remember that additional costs and risks accepted by the seller are always reflected in the price.
Control of transport and insurance
In some instances an exporter of large and regular volumes of goods may be in a position to obtain better terms from carriers and insurers than the occasional importer. It may be comparatively simple to arrange the transport in the country of export and the risk of something going wrong will be minimal. In such cases there is really no reason why the seller should limit his obligations under an Ex Works or FOB agreement. He could just as well accept a further obligation to arrange and pay for the carriage and insurance on CIF terms.
Sellers and buyers are not always prepared to accept risk of loss and damage to goods, or the risk of cost increases or circumstances hindering transport, in a foreign country. Under normal conditions of trade between countries with well-organized container ports and comparatively peaceful labour conditions, the risk of political disturbances, congestion in the ports, strikes or interruptions of trade may be minimal. In such cases, the seller may be prepared to assume the risk during transport, and to choose a term in which his responsibilities extend to the arrival of goods at destination (Delivered Duty Paid).
Government involvement
Directly or indirectly, government authorities may guide or even instruct parties in their country to sell on CIF terms and to buy on FOB terms. There are several reasons for this:
• trade terms constitute an important tool for directing the flow of goods to national shipping lines or other national carriers. They can also be used to promote the domestic insurance market.
• saving foreign currency. A seller who has undertaken to pay for carriage and insurance will include these costs in his price, and thereby obtain more foreign currency. On the other hand, a buyer who has assumed these costs will pay less for the actual goods, and may sometimes be able to pay for transportation and insurance services in domestic currency.
Use of exception clauses
It must be remembered that trade terms extending the seller’s obligations to delivery in the buyer’s country will not only mean additional costs for the seller but also additional risks. The risk of loss of goods or damage is perhaps not primarily important, since it is normally covered by cargo insurance.
Risks of cost increases and hindrances of various types are much more serious. Unforeseen events – such as the imposition of duties, other government interventions, labour disturbances, war or warlike operations – may put a heavy burden on the seller.
To a certain extent such risks may be modified and divided between the parties under terms other than Incoterms. Depending upon their wording, these terms may provide more or less protection; such protection, however, is seldom complete.
In view of the importance of Incoterms for international trade, we quote here five most frequently used terms from the ICC Incoterms 2000 (ICC publication № 560): EXW, FOB, CIF, CIP, DDP. In the following, each of the five Incoterms is briefly described, highlighting the main obligations of seller and buyer. The sections "The seller’s obligations"/ "The buyer’s obligations" serve at the same time as a checklist.
EXW, EX WORKS (…named place)
"Ex works" means that the seller delivers when he places the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the seller’s premises or another named place (i.e. works, factory, warehouse, etc.) not cleared for export and not loaded on any collecting vehicle.
This term thus represents the minimum obligation for the seller, and the buyer has to bear all costs and risks involved in taking the goods from the seller’s premises.
However, if the parties wish the seller to be responsible for the loading of the goods on departure and to bear the risks and all the costs of such loading, this should be made clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sale. This term should not be used when the buyer cannot carry out the export formalities directly or indirectly. In such circumstances, the FCA term should be used, provided the seller agrees that he will load at his cost and risk.
The Seller’s obligations
A1 Provision of goods in conformity with the contract
The seller must provide the goods and the commercial invoice or its equivalent electronic message, in conformity with the contract of sale and any other evidence of conformity which may be required by the contract.
A2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The seller must render the buyer, at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining, where applicable, any export licence or other official authorization necessary for the export of the goods.
A3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
A4 Delivery
The seller must place the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the named place of delivery, not loaded on any collecting vehicle, on the date or within the period agreed or, if no such time is agreed, at the usual time for delivery of such goods. If no specific point has been agreed within the named place, and if there are several points available, the seller may select the point at the place of delivery which best suits his purpose.
A5 Transfer of risks
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B5, bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A6 Division of costs
The seller must, subject to the provisions of B6, pay all costs relating to the goods until such time as they have been delivered in accordance with A4.
A7 Notice to the buyer
The seller must give the buyer sufficient notice as to when and where the goods will be placed at his disposal.
A8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
No obligation.
A9 Checking – packaging – marking
The seller must pay the costs of those checking operations (such as checking quality, measuring, weighing, counting) which are necessary for the purpose of placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal.
The seller must provide at his own expense packaging (unless it is usual for the particular trade to make the goods of the contract description available unpacked) which is required for the transport of the goods, to the extent that the circumstances relating to the transport (for example modalities, destination) are made known to the seller before the contract of sale is concluded. Packaging is to be marked appropriately.
A10 Other obligations
The seller must render the buyer at the latter’s request, risk and expense, every assistance in obtaining any documents or equivalent electronic messages issued or transmitted in the country of delivery and/or of origin which the buyer may require for the export and/or import of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through any country.
The seller must provide the buyer, upon request, with the necessary information for procuring insurance.
The Buyer’s obligations
B1 Payment of the price
The buyer must pay the price as provided in the contract of sale.
B2 Licences,authorizations and formalities
The buyer must obtain at his own risk and expense any export and import licence or other official authorization and carry out, where applicable, all customs formalities for the export of the goods.
B3 Contracts of carriage and insurance
a) Contract of carriage
No obligation.
b) Contract of insurance
No obligation.
B4 Taking delivery
The buyer must take delivery of the goods when they have been delivered in accordance with A4 and A7/B7.
B5 Transfer of risks
The buyer must bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods
• from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• from the agreed date or the expiry date of any period fixed for taking delivery which arise because he fails to give notice in accordance with B7, provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods.
B6 Division of costs
The buyer must pay
• all costs relating to the goods from the time they have been delivered in accordance with A4; and
• any additional costs incurred by failing either to take delivery of the goods when they have been placed at his disposal, or to give appropriate notice in accordance with B7 provided, however, that the goods have been duly appropriated to the contract, that is to say, clearly set aside or otherwise identified as the contract goods; and
• where applicable, all duties, taxes and other charges as well as the costs of carrying out customs formalities payable upon export.
The buyer must reimburse all costs and charges incurred by the seller in rendering assistance in accordance with A2.
B7 Notice to the seller
The buyer must, whenever he is entitled to determine the time within an agreed period and/or the place of taking delivery, give the seller sufficient notice thereof.
B8 Proof of delivery,transport document or equivalent electronic message
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