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16. Neck. Root, fascies of the neck
Root of neck: This area communicates with the superior medi astinum through the thoracic inlet. Structures of the region include the following: subclavian artery and vein. The subclavian artery passes poste rior to the scalenus anterior muscle, and the vein passes ante rior to it Branches of the artery include: vertebral artery; thyrocervical trunk, which gives rise to the inferior thyroid, the transverse cervical, and the suprascapular arteries; Internal thoracic artery.
Phrenic nerve is a branch of the cervical plexus, which arises from C3, C4, and C5. It is the sole motor nerve to the diaphragm. It crosses the anterior scalene muscle from lateral to medial to enter the thoracic inlet.
Recurrent laryngeal nerve is a branch of the vagus nerve. This mixed nerve conveys sensory information from the laryngeal; mucosa below the level of the vocal folds and provides motor innervation to all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid muscle.
Thoracic duct terminates at the junction of the left subclavian and the left internal jugular veins On the right side of the body, the right lymphatic duct terminates in a similar fashion.
Fascias of the neck Superficial investing fascia encloses the platysma, a muscle of facial expression, which has migrated to the neck
Deep investing fascia surrounds the trapezius and ster-noclei – domastoid muscles.
Retropharyngeal (visceral) fascia surrounds the pharynx.
Prevertebral fascia invests the prevertebral muscles of the nee (i. e., longus colli, longus capitis) This layer gives rise to a derivative known as the alar fascia.
The major muscle groups and their innervations. A simple method of organizing the muscles of the neck is based on two basic principles: (1) The muscles may be arranged in group according to their functions; and (2) all muscles in a group share common innervation with one exception in each group.
Group 1: Muscles of the tongue. All intrinsic muscles plus all but one of the extrinsic muscles (i. e., those containing the suffix, glossus) of the tongue are supplied by CN XII. The one exception is palatoglossus, which is supplied by CN X.
Group 2: Muscles of the larynx. All but one of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are supplied by the recurrent la-ryngeal branch of the vagus nerve. The sole exception is the cricothyroid muscle, which is supplied by the external laryngeal branch of the vagus.
Group 3: Muscles of the pharynx. All but one of the longitudinal and circular muscles of the pharynx are supplied by CNs X and XI (cranial portion). The sole exception is the stylopharyngeus muscle, which is supplied by CN IX.
Group 4: Muscles of the soft palate. All but one of the muscles of the palate are supplied by CNs X and XI (cranial portion). The sole exception is the tensor veli palatini, which is supplied CN V3.
Group 5: Infrahyoid muscles. All but one of the infrahyo-id muscles are supplied by the ansa cervicalis of the cervical olexus (C1, C2, and C3). The exception is the thy-rohyoid, which is supplied by a branch of C1. (This branch of C1 also supplies the geniohyoid muscle).
cervical – цервикальный
vertebrae – позвоночник
cricoid cartilage – перстневидный хрящ гортани
scapulae – лопатка
scalene – лестничная мышца
brachial plexus – плечевое сплетение
vagus nerve – блуждающий нерв
hypoglossal nerve – подъязычный нерв
laryngeal branches – гортанные ветви
Phrenic nerve is a branch of the cervical plexus, which arises from C3, C4, and C5. It is the sole motor nerve to the diaphragm. It crosses the anterior scalene muscle from lateral to medial to enter the thoracic inlet.
Recurrent laryngeal nerve is a branch of the vagus nerve. This mixed nerve conveys sensory information from the laryngeal; mucosa below the level of the vocal folds and provides motor innervation to all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid muscle.
Thoracic duct terminates at the junction of the left subclavian and the left internal jugular veins On the right side of the body, the right lymphatic duct terminates in a similar fashion.
Fascias of the neck Superficial investing fascia encloses the platysma, a muscle of facial expression, which has migrated to the neck
Deep investing fascia surrounds the trapezius and ster-noclei – domastoid muscles.
Retropharyngeal (visceral) fascia surrounds the pharynx.
Prevertebral fascia invests the prevertebral muscles of the nee (i. e., longus colli, longus capitis) This layer gives rise to a derivative known as the alar fascia.
The major muscle groups and their innervations. A simple method of organizing the muscles of the neck is based on two basic principles: (1) The muscles may be arranged in group according to their functions; and (2) all muscles in a group share common innervation with one exception in each group.
Group 1: Muscles of the tongue. All intrinsic muscles plus all but one of the extrinsic muscles (i. e., those containing the suffix, glossus) of the tongue are supplied by CN XII. The one exception is palatoglossus, which is supplied by CN X.
Group 2: Muscles of the larynx. All but one of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are supplied by the recurrent la-ryngeal branch of the vagus nerve. The sole exception is the cricothyroid muscle, which is supplied by the external laryngeal branch of the vagus.
Group 3: Muscles of the pharynx. All but one of the longitudinal and circular muscles of the pharynx are supplied by CNs X and XI (cranial portion). The sole exception is the stylopharyngeus muscle, which is supplied by CN IX.
Group 4: Muscles of the soft palate. All but one of the muscles of the palate are supplied by CNs X and XI (cranial portion). The sole exception is the tensor veli palatini, which is supplied CN V3.
Group 5: Infrahyoid muscles. All but one of the infrahyo-id muscles are supplied by the ansa cervicalis of the cervical olexus (C1, C2, and C3). The exception is the thy-rohyoid, which is supplied by a branch of C1. (This branch of C1 also supplies the geniohyoid muscle).
New words
neck – шеяcervical – цервикальный
vertebrae – позвоночник
cricoid cartilage – перстневидный хрящ гортани
scapulae – лопатка
scalene – лестничная мышца
brachial plexus – плечевое сплетение
vagus nerve – блуждающий нерв
hypoglossal nerve – подъязычный нерв
laryngeal branches – гортанные ветви
17. Thoracic wall
There are 12 thoracic vertebrae. Each rib articulates with the body of the numerically corresponding vertebra and the one below it. Sternum: the manubrium articulates with the clavicle and the first rib. It meets the body of the sternum at the sternal angel an important clinical landmark.
The body articulates directly with ribs 2–7; it articulates interiorly with the xiphoid process.
Ribs and costal cartilages: there are 12 pairs of ribs, which are attached posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae.
Ribs 1–7 attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilages.
Ribs 8 – 10 attach to the costal cartilage of the rib above. Ribs 11 and 12 have no anterior attachments. The costal groove is located along the inferior border of each rib and provides protection for the intercostal nerve artery, and vein.
There are 11 pairs of external intercostal muscles.
These muscles fill the intercostal spaces from the tubercles of ribs posteriorly to the costochondral junctions anteriorly. There are 11 pairs of internal intercostal muscles.
These muscles fill the intercostal spaces anteriorly from the sternum to the angles of the ribs posteriorly.
Innermost intercostal muscles: the deep layers of the internal intercostal muscles are the innermost intercostal muscles.
Subcostalis portion: Fibers extend from the inner surface of the angle of one rib to the rib that is inferior to it.
Internal thoracic vessels, branches of the subclavian arteries, run anterior to these fibers. Intercostal structures
Intercostal nerves: there are 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, 11 intercostal pairs, and 1 subcostal pair.
Intercostal nerves are the ventral primary rami of thoracic spinal nerves. These nerves supply the skin and musculature of the thoracic and abdominal walls.
Intercostal arteries: there are 12 pairs of posterior and anterior arteries, 11 intercostal pairs, and 1 subcostal pair.
Anterior intercostal arteries.
Pairs 1–6 are derived from the internal thoracic arteries.
Pairs 7–9 are derived from the musculophrenic arteries.
Posterior intercostal arteries: the first two pairs arise from the superior intercostal artery, a branch of the costo-cervical trunk of the subcla vian artery.
Nine pairs of intercostal and one pair of subcostal arter ies arise from the thoracic aorta.
Intercostal veins: Anterior branches of the intercostal veins drain to the internal thoracic and musculophrenic veins.
Posterior branches drain to the azygos system of veins.
Lymphatic drainage of intercostal spaces: anterior drainage is to the internal thoracic (parasternal) nodes.
Posterior drainage is to the paraaortic nodes of the poste rior mediastinum.
wall – стенка
clavicle – ключица
xiphisternal – грудинный
groove – углубление
intercostal – межреберный
subcostal – подкостный
transversus – поперечный
musculophrenic – мышечный грудобрюшной
paraaortic – парааортальный
mediastinum – средостение
The body articulates directly with ribs 2–7; it articulates interiorly with the xiphoid process.
Ribs and costal cartilages: there are 12 pairs of ribs, which are attached posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae.
Ribs 1–7 attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilages.
Ribs 8 – 10 attach to the costal cartilage of the rib above. Ribs 11 and 12 have no anterior attachments. The costal groove is located along the inferior border of each rib and provides protection for the intercostal nerve artery, and vein.
There are 11 pairs of external intercostal muscles.
These muscles fill the intercostal spaces from the tubercles of ribs posteriorly to the costochondral junctions anteriorly. There are 11 pairs of internal intercostal muscles.
These muscles fill the intercostal spaces anteriorly from the sternum to the angles of the ribs posteriorly.
Innermost intercostal muscles: the deep layers of the internal intercostal muscles are the innermost intercostal muscles.
Subcostalis portion: Fibers extend from the inner surface of the angle of one rib to the rib that is inferior to it.
Internal thoracic vessels, branches of the subclavian arteries, run anterior to these fibers. Intercostal structures
Intercostal nerves: there are 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, 11 intercostal pairs, and 1 subcostal pair.
Intercostal nerves are the ventral primary rami of thoracic spinal nerves. These nerves supply the skin and musculature of the thoracic and abdominal walls.
Intercostal arteries: there are 12 pairs of posterior and anterior arteries, 11 intercostal pairs, and 1 subcostal pair.
Anterior intercostal arteries.
Pairs 1–6 are derived from the internal thoracic arteries.
Pairs 7–9 are derived from the musculophrenic arteries.
Posterior intercostal arteries: the first two pairs arise from the superior intercostal artery, a branch of the costo-cervical trunk of the subcla vian artery.
Nine pairs of intercostal and one pair of subcostal arter ies arise from the thoracic aorta.
Intercostal veins: Anterior branches of the intercostal veins drain to the internal thoracic and musculophrenic veins.
Posterior branches drain to the azygos system of veins.
Lymphatic drainage of intercostal spaces: anterior drainage is to the internal thoracic (parasternal) nodes.
Posterior drainage is to the paraaortic nodes of the poste rior mediastinum.
New words
thoracic – груднойwall – стенка
clavicle – ключица
xiphisternal – грудинный
groove – углубление
intercostal – межреберный
subcostal – подкостный
transversus – поперечный
musculophrenic – мышечный грудобрюшной
paraaortic – парааортальный
mediastinum – средостение
18. Blood. Formed elements of the blood. Erythrocytes and platelets
Blood is considered a modified type of connective tissue Mesodermal is composed of cells and cell frag ments (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets), fibrous proteins (fibrinogen), and an extracellular fluid and proteins (plasma). It also contains cellular elements of the immune system as well as humoral factors
The formed elements of the blood include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are important in trans porting oxygen from the lungs to tissues and in returning carbon dioxide to the lungs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide carried in the RBC combine with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin, respectively.
Mature erythrocytes are denucleated, biconcave disks with a diameter of 7–8 mm. The biconcave shape results in a 20–30 % increase in sur face area compared to a sphere.
Erythrocytes have a very large surface area: volume ratio that allows for efficient gas transfer. Erythrocyte membranes are remarkably pliable, enabling the cells to squeeze through the narrowest capillaries In sickle cell anemia, this plasticity is lost, and the subsequent clogging of capillaries leads to sickle crisis. The normal concentration of erythrocytes in blood is 3,5–5,5 million/mm 3 in women and 4,3–5,9 million/mm 3in men. The packed volume of blood cells per total volume of known as the hematocrit. Normal hematocrit values are 46 % for women and 41–53 % for men.
When aging RBCs develop subtle changes, macrophages in the bone marrow, spleen, and liver engulf and digest them. The iron is carried by transferring in the blood to certain tissues, where it combines with apoferritin to form ferritin. The heme is catabolized into biliver-din, which is converted to bilirubin. The latter is secreted with bile salts.
Platelets (thromboplastids) are 2–3 mm in diameter.
They are a nuclear, membrane-bound cellular fragments derived by cytoplasmic fragmentation of giant cells, called megakaryocytes, in the bone marrow.
They have a short life span of approximately 10 days.
There are normally 150 000–400 000 platelets per mm3 of blood. Ultrastructurally, platelets contain two portions: a peripheral, light-staining hyalomere that sends out fine cytoplasmic processes, and a central, dark-staining granulomere that con tains mitochondria, vacuoles, glycogen granules, and granules. Platelets seal minute breaks in blood vessels and maintain endothelial integrity by adhering to the damaged vessel in a process known as platelet aggregation. Platelets are able to form a plug at the rupture site of a vessel because their mem brane permits them to agglutinate and adhere to surfaces.
Platelets aggregate to set up the cascade of enzymatic reac tions that convert fibrinogen into the fibrin fibers that make up the clot.
erythrocytes – эритроциты
platelets – тромбоциты
carbon – углерод
dioxid – диоксид
span – промежуток
light-staining – легкое окрашивание
to aggregate – соединяться
The formed elements of the blood include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are important in trans porting oxygen from the lungs to tissues and in returning carbon dioxide to the lungs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide carried in the RBC combine with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin, respectively.
Mature erythrocytes are denucleated, biconcave disks with a diameter of 7–8 mm. The biconcave shape results in a 20–30 % increase in sur face area compared to a sphere.
Erythrocytes have a very large surface area: volume ratio that allows for efficient gas transfer. Erythrocyte membranes are remarkably pliable, enabling the cells to squeeze through the narrowest capillaries In sickle cell anemia, this plasticity is lost, and the subsequent clogging of capillaries leads to sickle crisis. The normal concentration of erythrocytes in blood is 3,5–5,5 million/mm 3 in women and 4,3–5,9 million/mm 3in men. The packed volume of blood cells per total volume of known as the hematocrit. Normal hematocrit values are 46 % for women and 41–53 % for men.
When aging RBCs develop subtle changes, macrophages in the bone marrow, spleen, and liver engulf and digest them. The iron is carried by transferring in the blood to certain tissues, where it combines with apoferritin to form ferritin. The heme is catabolized into biliver-din, which is converted to bilirubin. The latter is secreted with bile salts.
Platelets (thromboplastids) are 2–3 mm in diameter.
They are a nuclear, membrane-bound cellular fragments derived by cytoplasmic fragmentation of giant cells, called megakaryocytes, in the bone marrow.
They have a short life span of approximately 10 days.
There are normally 150 000–400 000 platelets per mm3 of blood. Ultrastructurally, platelets contain two portions: a peripheral, light-staining hyalomere that sends out fine cytoplasmic processes, and a central, dark-staining granulomere that con tains mitochondria, vacuoles, glycogen granules, and granules. Platelets seal minute breaks in blood vessels and maintain endothelial integrity by adhering to the damaged vessel in a process known as platelet aggregation. Platelets are able to form a plug at the rupture site of a vessel because their mem brane permits them to agglutinate and adhere to surfaces.
Platelets aggregate to set up the cascade of enzymatic reac tions that convert fibrinogen into the fibrin fibers that make up the clot.
New words
mesodermal – мезодермальныйerythrocytes – эритроциты
platelets – тромбоциты
carbon – углерод
dioxid – диоксид
span – промежуток
light-staining – легкое окрашивание
to aggregate – соединяться
19. Blood. Formed elements of the blood. Leukocytes
Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are primarily with the cellular and humoral defense of the organism foreign materials. Leukocytes are classified as granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lympmonocytes).
Granulocytes are named according to the staining properties of their specific granules. Neutrophils sare 10–16 mm in diameter.
They have 3–5 nuclear lobes and contain azurophilic granules (lysosomes), which contain hydrolytic enzymes for bacterial destruction, in their cytoplasm. Neutrophils are phagocytes that are drawn (chemotaxis) to bacterial chemoattractants. They are the primary cells involved in the acute inflammatory response and represent 54–62 % of leukocytes.
Eosinophils: they have a bilobed nucleus and possess acid granulations in their cytoplasm. These granules contain hydrolytic enzymes and peroxidase, which a discharged into phagocytic vacuoles.
Eosinophils are more numerous in the blood during allergic diseases; they norma asent only – 3 % of leukocytes.
Basophils: they possess large spheroid granules, which are basophilic and metachromatic
Basophils degranulate in certain immune reaction, releasing heparin and histamine into their surroundings They also release additional vasoactive amines and slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A) consisting of leu-kotrienes LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4. They represent less than 1 % – of leukocytes
Agranulocytes are named according to their lack of specific granules. Lymphocytes are generally small cells measuring 7 – 10 mm in diameter and constitute 25–33 % of , leukocytes. They con tain circular dark-stained nuclei and scanty clear blue cyto plasm. Circulating lymphocytes enter the blood from the lymphatic tissues. Two principal types of immunocompetent lymphocytes can be identified T lymphocytes and В lymphocytes.
T cells differentiate in the thymus and then circulate in the peripheral blood, where they are the principal effec tors of cell-mediated immunity. They also function as helper and suppressor cells, by modulating the immune response through their effect on В cells, plasma cells, macrophages, and other T Cells.
В cells differentiate in bone marrow. Once activated by contact with an antigen, they differentiate into plasma cells, which synthesize antibodies that are secreted into the blood, intercellular fluid, and lymph. В lymphocytes also give rise to memory cells, which differentiate into plas ma cells only after the second exposure to the antigen. Monocytes vary in diameter from 15–18 mm and are the largest of the peripheral blood cells. They constitute 3–7 % of leukocytes.
Monocytes possess an eccentric nucleus. The cytoplasm has a ground-glass appearance and fine azurophilic granules.
Monocytes are the precursors for members of the mo-nonuclear phagocyte system, including tissue macrophages (histiocytes), osteoclasts, alveolar macrophages, and Kupffer cells of the liver.
erythrocytes – эритроциты
leukocytes – лейкоциты
fibrous proteins – волокнистые белки
immune – иммунный
humoral – гуморальный
to contain – содержать
nuclei – ядра
Granulocytes are named according to the staining properties of their specific granules. Neutrophils sare 10–16 mm in diameter.
They have 3–5 nuclear lobes and contain azurophilic granules (lysosomes), which contain hydrolytic enzymes for bacterial destruction, in their cytoplasm. Neutrophils are phagocytes that are drawn (chemotaxis) to bacterial chemoattractants. They are the primary cells involved in the acute inflammatory response and represent 54–62 % of leukocytes.
Eosinophils: they have a bilobed nucleus and possess acid granulations in their cytoplasm. These granules contain hydrolytic enzymes and peroxidase, which a discharged into phagocytic vacuoles.
Eosinophils are more numerous in the blood during allergic diseases; they norma asent only – 3 % of leukocytes.
Basophils: they possess large spheroid granules, which are basophilic and metachromatic
Basophils degranulate in certain immune reaction, releasing heparin and histamine into their surroundings They also release additional vasoactive amines and slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A) consisting of leu-kotrienes LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4. They represent less than 1 % – of leukocytes
Agranulocytes are named according to their lack of specific granules. Lymphocytes are generally small cells measuring 7 – 10 mm in diameter and constitute 25–33 % of , leukocytes. They con tain circular dark-stained nuclei and scanty clear blue cyto plasm. Circulating lymphocytes enter the blood from the lymphatic tissues. Two principal types of immunocompetent lymphocytes can be identified T lymphocytes and В lymphocytes.
T cells differentiate in the thymus and then circulate in the peripheral blood, where they are the principal effec tors of cell-mediated immunity. They also function as helper and suppressor cells, by modulating the immune response through their effect on В cells, plasma cells, macrophages, and other T Cells.
В cells differentiate in bone marrow. Once activated by contact with an antigen, they differentiate into plasma cells, which synthesize antibodies that are secreted into the blood, intercellular fluid, and lymph. В lymphocytes also give rise to memory cells, which differentiate into plas ma cells only after the second exposure to the antigen. Monocytes vary in diameter from 15–18 mm and are the largest of the peripheral blood cells. They constitute 3–7 % of leukocytes.
Monocytes possess an eccentric nucleus. The cytoplasm has a ground-glass appearance and fine azurophilic granules.
Monocytes are the precursors for members of the mo-nonuclear phagocyte system, including tissue macrophages (histiocytes), osteoclasts, alveolar macrophages, and Kupffer cells of the liver.
New words
mesodermal – мезодермальныйerythrocytes – эритроциты
leukocytes – лейкоциты
fibrous proteins – волокнистые белки
immune – иммунный
humoral – гуморальный
to contain – содержать
nuclei – ядра
20. Plasma
Plasma is the extracellular component of blood. It is an aqueous solution containing proteins, inorganic salts, and organic com pounds Albumin is the major plasma protein that maintains the osmotic pressure of blood. Other plasma proteins include the globulins (alpha, beta, gamma) and fibrinogen, which is necessary for the formation of fibrin in the final step of blood coagulation Plasma is in equilibrium with tissue interstitial fluid through capil lary walls; therefore, the composition of plasma may be used to judge the mean composition of the extracellular fluids Large blood proteins remain in the intravascular compartment and do not equilibrate with the interstitial fluid Serum is a clear yellow fluid that is separated from the coagulum during the process of blood clot formation. It has the same com position as plasma, but lacks the clotting factors (especially fib rinogen).
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic vessels consist of a, fine network of thin-walled vessels that drain into progressively larger and progressively thicker-walled collecting trunks. These ultimately drain, via the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, into the left and right subclavian veins at their angles of junction with the internal jugular veins, respectively. The lymphatics serve as a one-way (i. e., toward the heart) drainage sys tem for the return of tissue fluid and other diffusible substances, including plasma proteins, which constantly escape from the blood through capillaries. They are also important in serving as a conduit for channeling lymphocytes and antibodies produced in lymph nodes into the blood circulation.
Lymphatic capillaries consist of vessels lined with endothelial cells, which begin as blind-ended tubules or saccules in most tis sues of the body Endothelium is attenuated and usually lacks a continuous basal lamina. . Lymphatic vessels of large diameter resemble veins in their struc ture but lack a clear-cut separation between layers. Valves are more numerous in lymphatic vessels. Smooth muscle cells in the media layer engage in rhythmic contraction, pumping lymph toward the venous system. Smooth muscle is well-developed in large lymphatic ducts.
Circulation of lymph is slower than that of blood, but it is nonetheless an essential process. It has been estimated that in a single day, 50 % or more of the total circulating protein leaves the blood circulation at the capillary level and is recaptured by the lymphatics.
Distribution of lymphatics is ubiquitous with some notable excep tions, including epithelium, cartilage, bone, central nervous sys tem, and thymus.
extracellular – внеклеточный
aqueous – водный
solution – раствор
proteins – белки
inorganic – неорганический
salts – соли
organic – органический
albumin – альбумин
globulins – глобулины
alpha – альфа
beta – бета
gamma – гамма
fibrinogen – фибриноген
lymphatic – лимфатический
vessel – сосуд
endothelium – эндотелий
circulation – кровообращение
lymph – лимфа
ubiquitous – вездесущий
notable – известный
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic vessels consist of a, fine network of thin-walled vessels that drain into progressively larger and progressively thicker-walled collecting trunks. These ultimately drain, via the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, into the left and right subclavian veins at their angles of junction with the internal jugular veins, respectively. The lymphatics serve as a one-way (i. e., toward the heart) drainage sys tem for the return of tissue fluid and other diffusible substances, including plasma proteins, which constantly escape from the blood through capillaries. They are also important in serving as a conduit for channeling lymphocytes and antibodies produced in lymph nodes into the blood circulation.
Lymphatic capillaries consist of vessels lined with endothelial cells, which begin as blind-ended tubules or saccules in most tis sues of the body Endothelium is attenuated and usually lacks a continuous basal lamina. . Lymphatic vessels of large diameter resemble veins in their struc ture but lack a clear-cut separation between layers. Valves are more numerous in lymphatic vessels. Smooth muscle cells in the media layer engage in rhythmic contraction, pumping lymph toward the venous system. Smooth muscle is well-developed in large lymphatic ducts.
Circulation of lymph is slower than that of blood, but it is nonetheless an essential process. It has been estimated that in a single day, 50 % or more of the total circulating protein leaves the blood circulation at the capillary level and is recaptured by the lymphatics.
Distribution of lymphatics is ubiquitous with some notable excep tions, including epithelium, cartilage, bone, central nervous sys tem, and thymus.
New words
plasma – плазмаextracellular – внеклеточный
aqueous – водный
solution – раствор
proteins – белки
inorganic – неорганический
salts – соли
organic – органический
albumin – альбумин
globulins – глобулины
alpha – альфа
beta – бета
gamma – гамма
fibrinogen – фибриноген
lymphatic – лимфатический
vessel – сосуд
endothelium – эндотелий
circulation – кровообращение
lymph – лимфа
ubiquitous – вездесущий
notable – известный
21. Hematopoietic tissue. Erythropoiesis
Hematopoietic tissue is composed of reticular fibers and cells, blood vessels, and sinusoids (thin-walled blood channels). Myeloid, or blood cell-forming tissue, is found in the bone marrow and provides the stem cells that develop into erythrocytes, granulocytes, agranulocytes, and platelets. Red marrow is characterized by active hemato-poiesis; yellow bone marrow is inactive and contains mostly fat cells. In the human adult, hematopoiesis takes place in the mar row of the flat bones of the skull, ribs and sternum, the vertebral column, the pelvis, and the proximal ends of some long bones. Erythropoiesis is the process of RBC formation. Bone marrow stem cells (colony-forming units, CFUs) differentiate into proerythroblasts under the influence of the glycoprotein erythropoietin, which is produced by the kidney.
Proerythroblast is a large basophilic cell containing a large spherical euchromatic nucleus with prominent nucleoli.
Basophilic erythroblast is a strongly basophilic cell with nucleus that comprises approximately 75 % of its mass. Numerous cytoplasmic polyribosomes, condensed chro-matin, no visible nucleoli, and continued hemoglobin synthesis characteristics of this cell.
Polychromatophilic erythroblast is the last cell in this line undergoes mitotic divisions. Its nucleus comprises approximately 50 % of its mass and contains condensed chroma-tin which appears in a «checkerboard» pattern. The po-lychnsia of the cytoplasm is due to the increased quantity of acidophilic hemoglobin combined with the basophilia of cytoplasmic polyribosomes.
Normoblast (orthochromatophilic erythroblast) is a cell with a small heterochromatic nucleus that comprises approximately 25 % of its mass. It contains acidophilic cytoplasm because the large amount of hemoglobin and degenerating organelles. The pyknotic nucleus, which is no longer capable of division, is extruded from the cell.
Reticulocyte (polychromatophilic erythrocyte) is an immature acidophilic denucleated RBC, which still contains some ribosomes and mitochondria involved in the synthesis of a small quantity of hemoglobin. Approximately 1 % of the circulating RBCs are reticulocytes.
Erythrocyte is the mature acidophilic and denucleated RBC. Erythrocytes remain in the circulation approximately 120 days and are then recycled by the spleen, liver, and bone marrow.
sinusoids – синусоиды
granulocytes – гранулоциты
agranulocytes – агранулоциты
active – активный
yellow – желтый
glycoprotein – гликопротеин
erythropoietin – эритропоэтин
amount – количество
hemoglobin – гемоглобин
degenerating – дегенерирующие
condensed – сжатый
Proerythroblast is a large basophilic cell containing a large spherical euchromatic nucleus with prominent nucleoli.
Basophilic erythroblast is a strongly basophilic cell with nucleus that comprises approximately 75 % of its mass. Numerous cytoplasmic polyribosomes, condensed chro-matin, no visible nucleoli, and continued hemoglobin synthesis characteristics of this cell.
Polychromatophilic erythroblast is the last cell in this line undergoes mitotic divisions. Its nucleus comprises approximately 50 % of its mass and contains condensed chroma-tin which appears in a «checkerboard» pattern. The po-lychnsia of the cytoplasm is due to the increased quantity of acidophilic hemoglobin combined with the basophilia of cytoplasmic polyribosomes.
Normoblast (orthochromatophilic erythroblast) is a cell with a small heterochromatic nucleus that comprises approximately 25 % of its mass. It contains acidophilic cytoplasm because the large amount of hemoglobin and degenerating organelles. The pyknotic nucleus, which is no longer capable of division, is extruded from the cell.
Reticulocyte (polychromatophilic erythrocyte) is an immature acidophilic denucleated RBC, which still contains some ribosomes and mitochondria involved in the synthesis of a small quantity of hemoglobin. Approximately 1 % of the circulating RBCs are reticulocytes.
Erythrocyte is the mature acidophilic and denucleated RBC. Erythrocytes remain in the circulation approximately 120 days and are then recycled by the spleen, liver, and bone marrow.
New words
reticular – сетчатыйsinusoids – синусоиды
granulocytes – гранулоциты
agranulocytes – агранулоциты
active – активный
yellow – желтый
glycoprotein – гликопротеин
erythropoietin – эритропоэтин
amount – количество
hemoglobin – гемоглобин
degenerating – дегенерирующие
condensed – сжатый
22. Hematopoietic tissue. Granulopoiesis, thrombopoiesis
Granulopoiesis is the process of granulocyte formation. Bone marrow stem cells differentiate into all three types of granulocytes.
Myeloblast is a cell that has a large spherical nucleus containing delicate euchromatin and several nucleoli. It has a basophilic cytoplasm and no granules. Myeloblasts divide differentiate to form smaller promyelocytes.
Promyelocyte is a cell that contains a large spherical indented nucleus with coarse condensed chromatin. The cytoplasm is basophilic and contains peripheral azurophi-lic granules.
Myelocyte is the last cell in this series capable of division. The nucleus becomes increasingly heterochromatic with subsequent divisions. Specific granules arise from the Golgi apparatus, resulting in neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and basophilic myelocytes.
Metamyelocyte is a cell whose indented nucleus exhibits lobe formation that is characteristic of the neutrophil, eos-inophil, or basophil. The cytoplasm contains azurophilic granules and increasing numbers of specific granules. This cell does not divide. Granulocytes are the definitive cells that enter the blood. Neutrophilic granulocytes exhibit an intermediate stage called the band neutrophil. This is the first cell of this series to appear in the peripheral blood.
It has a nucleus shaped like a curved rod or band.
Bands normally constitute 0,5–2 % of peripheral WBCs; they subsequently mature into definitive neutrophils.
Agranulopoiesis is the process of lymphocyte and mono-cyte for mation. Lymphocytes develop from bone marrow stem cells (lymphoblasts). Cells develop in bone marrow and seed the secondary lymphoid organs (e. g., tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen). Stem cells for T cells come from bone marrow, develop in the thymus and, subsequently, seed the secondary lym phoid organs.
Promonocytes differentiate from bone marrow stem cells (monoblasts) and multiply to give rise to monocytes.
Monocytes spend only a short period of time in the marrow before being released into the bloodstream.
Monocytes are transported in the blood but are also found in connective tissues, body cavities and organs.
Outside the blood vessel wall, they are transformed into macrophages of the mononuclear phagocyte system.
Thrombopoiesis, or the formation of platelets, occurs in the red bone marrow.
Megakaryoblast is a large basophilic cell that contains a U-shaped or ovoid nucleus with prominent nucleoli. It is the last cell that undergoes mitosis.
Megakaryocytes are the largest of bone marrow cells, with diameters of 50 mm or greater. They undergo 4–5 nuclear divi sions without concomitant cytopla-smic division. As a result, the megakaryocyte is a cell with polylobulated, polyploid nucleus and abundant granules in its cytoplasm. As megakaryocyte maturation proceeds, «curtains» of platelet demarcation vesicles form in the cytoplasm. These vesicles coalesce, become tubular, and eventually form platelet demarcation membranes. These membranes fuse to give rise to the membranes of the platelets.
A single megakaryocyte can shed (i. e., produce) up to 3,500 platelets.
spherical – сферический
indented – зазубренный
chromatin – хроматин
Myeloblast is a cell that has a large spherical nucleus containing delicate euchromatin and several nucleoli. It has a basophilic cytoplasm and no granules. Myeloblasts divide differentiate to form smaller promyelocytes.
Promyelocyte is a cell that contains a large spherical indented nucleus with coarse condensed chromatin. The cytoplasm is basophilic and contains peripheral azurophi-lic granules.
Myelocyte is the last cell in this series capable of division. The nucleus becomes increasingly heterochromatic with subsequent divisions. Specific granules arise from the Golgi apparatus, resulting in neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and basophilic myelocytes.
Metamyelocyte is a cell whose indented nucleus exhibits lobe formation that is characteristic of the neutrophil, eos-inophil, or basophil. The cytoplasm contains azurophilic granules and increasing numbers of specific granules. This cell does not divide. Granulocytes are the definitive cells that enter the blood. Neutrophilic granulocytes exhibit an intermediate stage called the band neutrophil. This is the first cell of this series to appear in the peripheral blood.
It has a nucleus shaped like a curved rod or band.
Bands normally constitute 0,5–2 % of peripheral WBCs; they subsequently mature into definitive neutrophils.
Agranulopoiesis is the process of lymphocyte and mono-cyte for mation. Lymphocytes develop from bone marrow stem cells (lymphoblasts). Cells develop in bone marrow and seed the secondary lymphoid organs (e. g., tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen). Stem cells for T cells come from bone marrow, develop in the thymus and, subsequently, seed the secondary lym phoid organs.
Promonocytes differentiate from bone marrow stem cells (monoblasts) and multiply to give rise to monocytes.
Monocytes spend only a short period of time in the marrow before being released into the bloodstream.
Monocytes are transported in the blood but are also found in connective tissues, body cavities and organs.
Outside the blood vessel wall, they are transformed into macrophages of the mononuclear phagocyte system.
Thrombopoiesis, or the formation of platelets, occurs in the red bone marrow.
Megakaryoblast is a large basophilic cell that contains a U-shaped or ovoid nucleus with prominent nucleoli. It is the last cell that undergoes mitosis.
Megakaryocytes are the largest of bone marrow cells, with diameters of 50 mm or greater. They undergo 4–5 nuclear divi sions without concomitant cytopla-smic division. As a result, the megakaryocyte is a cell with polylobulated, polyploid nucleus and abundant granules in its cytoplasm. As megakaryocyte maturation proceeds, «curtains» of platelet demarcation vesicles form in the cytoplasm. These vesicles coalesce, become tubular, and eventually form platelet demarcation membranes. These membranes fuse to give rise to the membranes of the platelets.
A single megakaryocyte can shed (i. e., produce) up to 3,500 platelets.
New words
capable – способныйspherical – сферический
indented – зазубренный
chromatin – хроматин
23. Arteries
Arteries are classified according to their size, the appearance of their tunica media, or their major function.
Large elastic conducting arteries include the aorta and its large branches. Unstained, they appear yellow due to their high con tent of elastin.
The tunica intima is composed of endothelium and a thin sub jacent connective tissue layer. An internal elastic membrane marks the boundary between the intima and media.
The tunica media is extremely thick in large arteries and con sists of circularly organized, fenestrated sheets of elastic tissue with interspersed smooth muscle cells. These cells are responsi ble for producing elastin and other extracellular matrix com ponents. The outermost elastin sheet is considered as the external elastic membrane, which marks the boundary between the media and the tunica adventitia.
The tunica adventitia is a longitudinally oriented collection of collagenous bundles and delicate elastic fibers with associated fibroblasts. Large blood vessels have their own blood supply (vasa vasorum), which consists of small vessels that branch profusely in the walls of larger arteries and veins. Muscular distributing arteries are medium-sized vessels that are characterized by their predominance of circularly arranged smooth muscle cells in the media interspersed with a few elastin compo nents. Up to 40 layers of smooth muscle may occur. Both internal and external elastic limiting membranes are clearly demonstrated. The intima is thinner than that of the large arteries.
Arterioles are the smallest components of the arterial tree. Generally, any artery less than 0,5 mm in diameter is considered to be a small artery or arteriole. A suben-dothelial layer and the inter nal elastic membrane may be present in the largest of these vessels but are absent in the smaller ones. The media is composed of several smooth muscle cell layers, and the adventitia is poorly devel oped. An external elastic membrane is absent.
media – средняя
arteries – артерии
to be classified – классифицированный
according – соответственно
their – их
size – размер
appearance – вид
tunica – оболочка
major – главный
elastic – эластичный
conducting – проведение
arteries – артерии
to include – включать
aorta – аорта
branches – ветви
up to – до
layers – слои
smooth – гладкий
may – может
infima – внутренняя полость артерии
Large elastic conducting arteries include the aorta and its large branches. Unstained, they appear yellow due to their high con tent of elastin.
The tunica intima is composed of endothelium and a thin sub jacent connective tissue layer. An internal elastic membrane marks the boundary between the intima and media.
The tunica media is extremely thick in large arteries and con sists of circularly organized, fenestrated sheets of elastic tissue with interspersed smooth muscle cells. These cells are responsi ble for producing elastin and other extracellular matrix com ponents. The outermost elastin sheet is considered as the external elastic membrane, which marks the boundary between the media and the tunica adventitia.
The tunica adventitia is a longitudinally oriented collection of collagenous bundles and delicate elastic fibers with associated fibroblasts. Large blood vessels have their own blood supply (vasa vasorum), which consists of small vessels that branch profusely in the walls of larger arteries and veins. Muscular distributing arteries are medium-sized vessels that are characterized by their predominance of circularly arranged smooth muscle cells in the media interspersed with a few elastin compo nents. Up to 40 layers of smooth muscle may occur. Both internal and external elastic limiting membranes are clearly demonstrated. The intima is thinner than that of the large arteries.
Arterioles are the smallest components of the arterial tree. Generally, any artery less than 0,5 mm in diameter is considered to be a small artery or arteriole. A suben-dothelial layer and the inter nal elastic membrane may be present in the largest of these vessels but are absent in the smaller ones. The media is composed of several smooth muscle cell layers, and the adventitia is poorly devel oped. An external elastic membrane is absent.
New words
endothelium – эндотелийmedia – средняя
arteries – артерии
to be classified – классифицированный
according – соответственно
their – их
size – размер
appearance – вид
tunica – оболочка
major – главный
elastic – эластичный
conducting – проведение
arteries – артерии
to include – включать
aorta – аорта
branches – ветви
up to – до
layers – слои
smooth – гладкий
may – может
infima – внутренняя полость артерии
24. Capillaries
Capillaries are thin-walled, narrow-diameter, low-pressure vessels that generally permit easy diffusion across their walls. Most capillar ies have a cross-sectional diameter of 7 – 12 mm. They are composed of a simple layer of endothelium, which is the lining of the entire vas cular system, and an underlying basal lamina. They are attached to the surrounding tissues by a delicate reticulum of collagen. Associated with these vessels at various points along their length are specialized cells called pericytes. These cells, enclosed within their own basal lamina, which is continuous with that of the endothelium, contain contractile proteins and thus may be involved in the control of capillary dynamics. They may also serve as stem cells at times of vascular repair. Capillaries are generally divided into three types, according to the structure of their endothelial cell walls
Continuous (muscular, somatic) capillaries are formed by a single uninterrupted layer of endothelial cells rolled up into the shape of a tube and can be found in locations such as connective tissue, muscle, and nerve
Fenestrated (visceral) capillaries are characterized by the presence of pores in the endothelial cell wall. The pores are covered by a thin diaphragm (except in the glomeruli of the kidney) and are usually encountered in tissues where rapid substance interchange occurs (e. g., kidney, intestine, endocrine glands)
Sinusoidal capillaries can be found in the liver, hematopoietic and lymphopoietic organs, and in certain endocrine glands. These tubes with discontinuous endothelial walls have a larger diame ter than other capillaries (up to 40 mm), exhibit irregular cross-sec tional profiles, have more tortuous paths, and often lack a con tinuous basal lamina. Cells with phagocytic activity (macrophages) are present within, or just subjacent to, the en-dothelium.
to thin-walled – окруженный тонкой стеной
narrow-diameter – узкий диаметр
low-pressure – низкое давление
that – тот
generally – главным образом
permit – разрешение
easy – легкий
diffusion – распространение
cross-sectional – поперечный
to be composed – быть сложным
simple – простой
endothelium – эндотелий
lining – выравнивание
entire – весь
vas cular – сосудистый
underlying – лежащий в основе
basal – основной
lamina – тонкая пластинка
Continuous (muscular, somatic) capillaries are formed by a single uninterrupted layer of endothelial cells rolled up into the shape of a tube and can be found in locations such as connective tissue, muscle, and nerve
Fenestrated (visceral) capillaries are characterized by the presence of pores in the endothelial cell wall. The pores are covered by a thin diaphragm (except in the glomeruli of the kidney) and are usually encountered in tissues where rapid substance interchange occurs (e. g., kidney, intestine, endocrine glands)
Sinusoidal capillaries can be found in the liver, hematopoietic and lymphopoietic organs, and in certain endocrine glands. These tubes with discontinuous endothelial walls have a larger diame ter than other capillaries (up to 40 mm), exhibit irregular cross-sec tional profiles, have more tortuous paths, and often lack a con tinuous basal lamina. Cells with phagocytic activity (macrophages) are present within, or just subjacent to, the en-dothelium.
New words
capillaries – капиллярыto thin-walled – окруженный тонкой стеной
narrow-diameter – узкий диаметр
low-pressure – низкое давление
that – тот
generally – главным образом
permit – разрешение
easy – легкий
diffusion – распространение
cross-sectional – поперечный
to be composed – быть сложным
simple – простой
endothelium – эндотелий
lining – выравнивание
entire – весь
vas cular – сосудистый
underlying – лежащий в основе
basal – основной
lamina – тонкая пластинка
25. Veins
Veins are low-pressure vessels that have larger lumina and thinner walls than arteries. In general, veins have more collagenous connec tive tissue and less muscle and elastic tissue than their arterial coun terparts. Although the walls of veins usually exhibit the three layers, they are much less distinct than those of the arter ies. Unlike arteries, veins contain one-way valves composed of exten sions of the intima that prevent reflux of blood away from the heart. Veins can be divided into small veins or venules, medium veins, and large veins.
Venules are the smallest veins, ranging in diameter from approxi mately 15–20 mm (post-capillary venules) up to 1–2 mm (small veins). The walls of the smaller of these are structurally and func tionally like those of the capillaries; they consist of an endothelium surrounded by delicate collagen fibers and some pericytes. In those vessels of increased diameter, circularly arranged smooth muscle cells occur surrounding the intima layer, but unlike in the small arteries, these cells are loosely woven and widely spaced. Venules are important in inflammation because their endothelial cells are sensitive to hista-mine released by local mast cells. This causes endotheli-al cells to contract and separate from each other, exposing a naked basement membrane. Neutrophils stick to the exposed collagen and extravasate (i. e., move out into the connective tissue). Histamine also causes local arterioles to relax, affect ing a rise in venous pressure and increased leaking of fluid. This produces the classic signs of inflammation: redness, heat, and swelling.
Medium veins in the range of 1–9 mm in diameter have a well – developed intima, a media consisting of connective tissue and loosely organized smooth muscle, and an adventitia (usually the thickest layer) composed of collagen bundles, elastic fibers, and smooth muscle cells oriented along the longitudinal axis of the vessel. Venous valves are sheet-like outfoldings of endothelium and underlying connective tissue that form flaps to permit uni-di rectional flow of blood.
Large veins, such as the external iliac, hepatic portal, and vena cavae, are the major conduits of return toward the heart. The intima is similar to that of medium veins. Although a network of elastic fibers may occur at the boundary between the intima andmedia, a typical internal elastic membrane as seen in arteries is not present. A tunica media may or may not be present. If pre sent, smooth muscle cells are most often circularly arranged. The ad-ventitia is the thickest layer of the wall and consists of elastic fibers and longitudinal bundles of collagen. In the vena cava, this layer also contains well-developed bundles of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle.
low-pressure – низкое давление
collagenous – коллагеновый
intima – интима
reflux – рефлюкс
inflammation – воспаление
longitudinal – продольный
flaps – створки
iliac – подвздошный
hepatic – печеночный
Venules are the smallest veins, ranging in diameter from approxi mately 15–20 mm (post-capillary venules) up to 1–2 mm (small veins). The walls of the smaller of these are structurally and func tionally like those of the capillaries; they consist of an endothelium surrounded by delicate collagen fibers and some pericytes. In those vessels of increased diameter, circularly arranged smooth muscle cells occur surrounding the intima layer, but unlike in the small arteries, these cells are loosely woven and widely spaced. Venules are important in inflammation because their endothelial cells are sensitive to hista-mine released by local mast cells. This causes endotheli-al cells to contract and separate from each other, exposing a naked basement membrane. Neutrophils stick to the exposed collagen and extravasate (i. e., move out into the connective tissue). Histamine also causes local arterioles to relax, affect ing a rise in venous pressure and increased leaking of fluid. This produces the classic signs of inflammation: redness, heat, and swelling.
Medium veins in the range of 1–9 mm in diameter have a well – developed intima, a media consisting of connective tissue and loosely organized smooth muscle, and an adventitia (usually the thickest layer) composed of collagen bundles, elastic fibers, and smooth muscle cells oriented along the longitudinal axis of the vessel. Venous valves are sheet-like outfoldings of endothelium and underlying connective tissue that form flaps to permit uni-di rectional flow of blood.
Large veins, such as the external iliac, hepatic portal, and vena cavae, are the major conduits of return toward the heart. The intima is similar to that of medium veins. Although a network of elastic fibers may occur at the boundary between the intima andmedia, a typical internal elastic membrane as seen in arteries is not present. A tunica media may or may not be present. If pre sent, smooth muscle cells are most often circularly arranged. The ad-ventitia is the thickest layer of the wall and consists of elastic fibers and longitudinal bundles of collagen. In the vena cava, this layer also contains well-developed bundles of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle.
New words
vein – венаlow-pressure – низкое давление
collagenous – коллагеновый
intima – интима
reflux – рефлюкс
inflammation – воспаление
longitudinal – продольный
flaps – створки
iliac – подвздошный
hepatic – печеночный
26. Heart
Intrapulmonary bronchi: the primary bronchi give rise to three main branches in the right lung and two branches in the left lung, each of which supply a pulmonary lobe. These lobar bronchi divide repeatedly to give rise to bronchioles.
Mucosa consists of the typical respiratory epithelium.
Submucosa consists of elastic tissue with fewer mixed glands than seen in the trachea.
Anastomosing cartilage plates replace the C-shaped rings found in the trachea and extra pulmonary portions of the pri mary bronchi.
Bronchioles do not possess cartilage, glands, or lymphatic nodules; however, they contain the highest proportion of smooth r muscle in the bronchial tree. Bronchioles branch up to 12 times to supply lobules in the lung.
Bronchioles are lined by ciliated, simple, columnar epithelium with nonciliated bronchiolar cells. The musculature of the bronchi and bronchioles con tracts following stimulation by parasympathetic fibers (vagus nerve) and relaxes in response to sympathetic fibers. Terminal bronchioles consist of low-ciliated epithelium with bronchiolar cells.
The costal surface is a large convex area related to the inner surface of the ribs.
The mediastinal surface is a concave medial surface, contains the root, or hilus, of the lung.
The diaphragmatic surface (base) is related to the convex sur face of the diaphragm. The apex (cupola) protrudes into the root of the neck.
The hilus is the point of attachment for the root of the lung. It contains the bronchi, pulmonary and bronchial vessels, lym phatics, and nerves. Lobes and fissures ventricular con traction (systole). Semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonic) prevent reflux of blood back into the ventricles during ventricular relaxation (diastole). Impulse conducting system of the heart consists of specialized cardiac myocytes that are characterized by auto-maticity and rhythmicity (i. e., they are independent of nervous stimulation and possess the ability to initiate heart beats). These specialized cells are located in the sino-atrial (SA) node (pacemaker), intern-odal tracts, atrioven-tricular (AV) node, AV bundle (of His), left and right bundle branches, and numerous smaller branches to the left and right ventricular walls. Impulse conduct ing myocytes are in electrical contact with each other and with normal contractile myocytes via communicating (gap) junctions. Specialized wide-diameter impulse conducting cells (Purkinje myocytes), with greatly reduced myofilament components, are well-adapted to increase conduction velocity. They rapidly deliver the wave of depolarization to ventricular myocytes.
muscular – мышечный
cardiac – сердечный
to pump – качать
endocardium – эндокардиум
innermost – самый внутренний
conducting system – проведение системы
subendocardial – внутрисердечный
impulse – импульс
fibrosi – фиброзные кольца
Mucosa consists of the typical respiratory epithelium.
Submucosa consists of elastic tissue with fewer mixed glands than seen in the trachea.
Anastomosing cartilage plates replace the C-shaped rings found in the trachea and extra pulmonary portions of the pri mary bronchi.
Bronchioles do not possess cartilage, glands, or lymphatic nodules; however, they contain the highest proportion of smooth r muscle in the bronchial tree. Bronchioles branch up to 12 times to supply lobules in the lung.
Bronchioles are lined by ciliated, simple, columnar epithelium with nonciliated bronchiolar cells. The musculature of the bronchi and bronchioles con tracts following stimulation by parasympathetic fibers (vagus nerve) and relaxes in response to sympathetic fibers. Terminal bronchioles consist of low-ciliated epithelium with bronchiolar cells.
The costal surface is a large convex area related to the inner surface of the ribs.
The mediastinal surface is a concave medial surface, contains the root, or hilus, of the lung.
The diaphragmatic surface (base) is related to the convex sur face of the diaphragm. The apex (cupola) protrudes into the root of the neck.
The hilus is the point of attachment for the root of the lung. It contains the bronchi, pulmonary and bronchial vessels, lym phatics, and nerves. Lobes and fissures ventricular con traction (systole). Semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonic) prevent reflux of blood back into the ventricles during ventricular relaxation (diastole). Impulse conducting system of the heart consists of specialized cardiac myocytes that are characterized by auto-maticity and rhythmicity (i. e., they are independent of nervous stimulation and possess the ability to initiate heart beats). These specialized cells are located in the sino-atrial (SA) node (pacemaker), intern-odal tracts, atrioven-tricular (AV) node, AV bundle (of His), left and right bundle branches, and numerous smaller branches to the left and right ventricular walls. Impulse conduct ing myocytes are in electrical contact with each other and with normal contractile myocytes via communicating (gap) junctions. Specialized wide-diameter impulse conducting cells (Purkinje myocytes), with greatly reduced myofilament components, are well-adapted to increase conduction velocity. They rapidly deliver the wave of depolarization to ventricular myocytes.
New words
heart – сердцеmuscular – мышечный
cardiac – сердечный
to pump – качать
endocardium – эндокардиум
innermost – самый внутренний
conducting system – проведение системы
subendocardial – внутрисердечный
impulse – импульс
fibrosi – фиброзные кольца
27. Lungs
Intrapulmonary bronchi: the primary bronchi give rise to three main branches in the right lung and two branches in the left lung, each of which supply a pulmonary lobe. These lobar bronchi divide repeatedly to give rise to bronchioles.
Mucosa consists of the typical respiratory epithelium.
Submucosa consists of elastic tissue with fewer mixed glands than seen in the trachea.
Anastomosing cartilage plates replace the C-shaped rings found in the trachea and extra pulmonary portions of the pri тагу bronchi.
Bronchioles do not possess cartilage, glands, or lymphatic nodules; however, they contain the highest proportion of smooth r muscle in the bronchial tree. Bronchioles branch up to 12 times to supply lobules in the lung.
Bronchioles are lined by ciliated, simple, columnar epithelium with nonciliated bronchiolar cells. The musculature of the bronchi and bronchioles con tracts following stimulation by parasympathetic fibers (vagus nerve) and relaxes in response to sympathetic fibers. Terminal bronchioles consist of low-ciliated epithelium with bronchiolar cells.
The costal surface is a large convex area related to the inner surface of the ribs.
The mediastinal surface is a concave medial surface, contains the root, or hilus, of the lung.
The diaphragmatic surface (base) is related to the convex sur face of the diaphragm. The apex (cupola) protrudes into the root of the neck.
The hilus is the point of attachment for the root of the lung. It contains the bronchi, pulmonary and bronchial vessels, lym phatics, and nerves. Lobes and fissures.
The right lung has three lobes: superior, middle and inferior.
The left lung has upper and lower lobes.
Bronchopulmonary segments of the lung are supplied by the segmental (tertiary) bronchus, artery, and vein. There are 10 on the right and 8 on the left.
Arterial supply: Right and left pulmonary arteries arise from the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary arteries deliver deoxygenated blood to the lungs from the right side of the heart.
Bronchial arteries supply the bronchi and nonrespiratory por tions of the lung. They are usually branches of the thoracic aorta.
Venous drainage. There are four pulmonary veins: superior right and left and inferior right and left. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
The bronchial veins drain to the azygos system.
Bronchomediastinal lymph trunks drain to the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
Innervation of Lungs: Anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses are formed by vagal (parasympathetic) and sympathetic fibers. Parasympathetic stimulation has a bronchoconstrictive effect. Sympathetic stimulation has a bronchodilator effect.
intrapulmonary bronchi – внутрилегочные бронхи
the primary bronchi – первичные бронхи
lobar bronchi – долевые бронхи
submucosa – подслизистая оболочка
Mucosa consists of the typical respiratory epithelium.
Submucosa consists of elastic tissue with fewer mixed glands than seen in the trachea.
Anastomosing cartilage plates replace the C-shaped rings found in the trachea and extra pulmonary portions of the pri тагу bronchi.
Bronchioles do not possess cartilage, glands, or lymphatic nodules; however, they contain the highest proportion of smooth r muscle in the bronchial tree. Bronchioles branch up to 12 times to supply lobules in the lung.
Bronchioles are lined by ciliated, simple, columnar epithelium with nonciliated bronchiolar cells. The musculature of the bronchi and bronchioles con tracts following stimulation by parasympathetic fibers (vagus nerve) and relaxes in response to sympathetic fibers. Terminal bronchioles consist of low-ciliated epithelium with bronchiolar cells.
The costal surface is a large convex area related to the inner surface of the ribs.
The mediastinal surface is a concave medial surface, contains the root, or hilus, of the lung.
The diaphragmatic surface (base) is related to the convex sur face of the diaphragm. The apex (cupola) protrudes into the root of the neck.
The hilus is the point of attachment for the root of the lung. It contains the bronchi, pulmonary and bronchial vessels, lym phatics, and nerves. Lobes and fissures.
The right lung has three lobes: superior, middle and inferior.
The left lung has upper and lower lobes.
Bronchopulmonary segments of the lung are supplied by the segmental (tertiary) bronchus, artery, and vein. There are 10 on the right and 8 on the left.
Arterial supply: Right and left pulmonary arteries arise from the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary arteries deliver deoxygenated blood to the lungs from the right side of the heart.
Bronchial arteries supply the bronchi and nonrespiratory por tions of the lung. They are usually branches of the thoracic aorta.
Venous drainage. There are four pulmonary veins: superior right and left and inferior right and left. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
The bronchial veins drain to the azygos system.
Bronchomediastinal lymph trunks drain to the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
Innervation of Lungs: Anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses are formed by vagal (parasympathetic) and sympathetic fibers. Parasympathetic stimulation has a bronchoconstrictive effect. Sympathetic stimulation has a bronchodilator effect.
New words
lungs – легкиеintrapulmonary bronchi – внутрилегочные бронхи
the primary bronchi – первичные бронхи
lobar bronchi – долевые бронхи
submucosa – подслизистая оболочка
28. Respiratory system
The respiratory system is structurally and functionally adapt ed for the efficient transfer of gases between the ambient air and the bloodstream as well as between the bloodstream and the tissues. The major functional components of the res piratory system are: the airways, alveoli, and bloodvessels of the lungs; the tissues of the chest wall and diaphragm; the systemic blood vessels; red blood cells and plasma; and respi ratory control neurons in the brainstem and their sensory and motor connections. LUNG FUNCTION: provision of 02 for tissue metabolism occurs via four mechanisms. Ventilation – the transport of air from the environment to the gas exchange surface in the alveoli. 02 diffusion from the alveolar air space across the alveolar-capillary membranes to the blood.
Transport of 02 by the blood to the tissues: 02 diffusion from the blood to the tissues.
Removal of C02 produced by tissue metabolism occurs via four mechanisms. C02 diffusion from the tissues to the blood.
Transport by the blood to the pulmonary capillary-alveolar membrane.
C02 diffusion across the capillary-alveolar membrane to the air spaces of the alveoli. Ventilation – the transport of alveolar gas to the air. Functional components: Conducting airways (conducting zone; anatomical dead space).
These airways are concerned only with the transport of gas, not with gas exchange with the blood.
They are thick-walled, branching, cylindrical structures with ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells, smooth muscle cells. Clara cells, mucous glands, and (sometimes) cartilage.
Alveoli and alveolar septa (respiratory zone; lung parenchyma).
These are the sites of gas exchange.
Cell types include: Type I and II epithelial cells, alveolar macrophages.
The blood-gas barrier (pulmonary capillary-alveolar membrane) is ideal for gas exchange because it is very thin (‹ 0,5 mm) and has a very large surface area (50 – 100 m 2). It consists of alveolar epithelium, basement membrane interstitium, and capillary endothelium.
air – воздух
bloodstream – кровоток
airways – воздушные пути
alveoli – альвеолы
blood vessels – кровеносные сосуды
lungs – легкие
chest – грудь
diaphragm – диафрагма
the systemic blood vessels – системные кровеносные сосуды
red blood cells – красные кровяные клетки
plasma – плазма
respi ratory control neurons – дыхательные нейроны контроля
brainstem – ствол мозга
sensory – сенсорный
motor connections – моторные связи
ventilation – вентиляция
transport – транспортировка
environment exchange – окружающая среда
surface – поверхность
Transport of 02 by the blood to the tissues: 02 diffusion from the blood to the tissues.
Removal of C02 produced by tissue metabolism occurs via four mechanisms. C02 diffusion from the tissues to the blood.
Transport by the blood to the pulmonary capillary-alveolar membrane.
C02 diffusion across the capillary-alveolar membrane to the air spaces of the alveoli. Ventilation – the transport of alveolar gas to the air. Functional components: Conducting airways (conducting zone; anatomical dead space).
These airways are concerned only with the transport of gas, not with gas exchange with the blood.
They are thick-walled, branching, cylindrical structures with ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells, smooth muscle cells. Clara cells, mucous glands, and (sometimes) cartilage.
Alveoli and alveolar septa (respiratory zone; lung parenchyma).
These are the sites of gas exchange.
Cell types include: Type I and II epithelial cells, alveolar macrophages.
The blood-gas barrier (pulmonary capillary-alveolar membrane) is ideal for gas exchange because it is very thin (‹ 0,5 mm) and has a very large surface area (50 – 100 m 2). It consists of alveolar epithelium, basement membrane interstitium, and capillary endothelium.
New words
respiratory – дыхательныйair – воздух
bloodstream – кровоток
airways – воздушные пути
alveoli – альвеолы
blood vessels – кровеносные сосуды
lungs – легкие
chest – грудь
diaphragm – диафрагма
the systemic blood vessels – системные кровеносные сосуды
red blood cells – красные кровяные клетки
plasma – плазма
respi ratory control neurons – дыхательные нейроны контроля
brainstem – ствол мозга
sensory – сенсорный
motor connections – моторные связи
ventilation – вентиляция
transport – транспортировка
environment exchange – окружающая среда
surface – поверхность
29. Lung volumes and capacities
Lung volumes – there are four lung volumes, which when added together, equal the maximal volume of the lungs. Tidal volume is the volume of one inspired or expected normal breath (average human = 0,5 L per breath). Inspiratory reserve volume is the volume of air that can be inspired in excess of the tidal volume. Expiratory reserve volume is the extra an that can be expired after a normal tidal expiration.
Residual volume is the volume of gas that re lungs after maximal expiration (average human = 1,2 L).
Total lung capacity is the volume of gas that can be con tained within the maximally inflated lungs (average human = 6 L).
Vital capacity is the maximal volume that can be expelled after maximal inspiration (average human = 4,8 L).
Functional residual capacity is the volume remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal tidal expiration (average luman = 2,2 L).
Inspiratory capacity is the volume that can be taken into the lungs after maximal inspiration following expiration of a normal breath. Helium dilution techniques are used to determine residual volume, FRC and TLC. A forced vital capacity is obtained when a subject inspires maximally and then exhales as forcefully and as completely as possible. The forced expiratory volume (FEV1) is the volume of air exhaled in the first second. Typically, the FEV1 is approximate 80 % of the FVC.
GAS LAWS AS APPLIED TO RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY: Dalton's Law: In a gas mixture, the pressure exerted by each gas is independent of the pressure exerted by the other gases.
A consequence of this is as follows: partial pressure = total pressure x fractional concentration. This equation can be used to determine the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. Assuming that the total pressure (or barometric pressure, PB) is atmospheric pressure at sea level (760 mmHg) and the fractional concentration of O 2is 21 %, or 0,21: P02 = 760 mmHg Ч 0,21 = 160 mmHg. As air moves into the airways, the partial pressures of the va-ri ous gases in atmospheric air are reduced because of the addi tion of water vapor (47 mmHg). Henry's Law states that the concentration of a gas dissolved in liquid is proportional to its partial pressure and its solubility coef fi-cient (Ks). Thus, for gas X, [X] = Ks Ч Px
Residual volume is the volume of gas that re lungs after maximal expiration (average human = 1,2 L).
Total lung capacity is the volume of gas that can be con tained within the maximally inflated lungs (average human = 6 L).
Vital capacity is the maximal volume that can be expelled after maximal inspiration (average human = 4,8 L).
Functional residual capacity is the volume remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal tidal expiration (average luman = 2,2 L).
Inspiratory capacity is the volume that can be taken into the lungs after maximal inspiration following expiration of a normal breath. Helium dilution techniques are used to determine residual volume, FRC and TLC. A forced vital capacity is obtained when a subject inspires maximally and then exhales as forcefully and as completely as possible. The forced expiratory volume (FEV1) is the volume of air exhaled in the first second. Typically, the FEV1 is approximate 80 % of the FVC.
GAS LAWS AS APPLIED TO RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY: Dalton's Law: In a gas mixture, the pressure exerted by each gas is independent of the pressure exerted by the other gases.
A consequence of this is as follows: partial pressure = total pressure x fractional concentration. This equation can be used to determine the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. Assuming that the total pressure (or barometric pressure, PB) is atmospheric pressure at sea level (760 mmHg) and the fractional concentration of O 2is 21 %, or 0,21: P02 = 760 mmHg Ч 0,21 = 160 mmHg. As air moves into the airways, the partial pressures of the va-ri ous gases in atmospheric air are reduced because of the addi tion of water vapor (47 mmHg). Henry's Law states that the concentration of a gas dissolved in liquid is proportional to its partial pressure and its solubility coef fi-cient (Ks). Thus, for gas X, [X] = Ks Ч Px