Kondrashin I. Dialectics of Matter

"It is precisely dialectics that constitutes the most important form of thinking for present-day natural science, for it alone offers the analogue for, and thereby the method of explaining, the evolutionary processes occurring in nature, interconnections in general, and transitions from one field of investigation to another." F. Engels "Dialectics of nature"

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Igor I. Kondrashin Dialectics of Matter

Dialectical Genesis of
Material Systems
(continuation)

Level D

The following organisational level of systemic formations
of Matter unites all the qualitative variety of inorganic elements. To proceed from
requirements of the law of augmentation of increase of functions per a unit of time owing
to the limitation of spatial displacement, the appearance of systemic formations of the
present sublevel was taking place mainly on the planetary bodies of the Universe.

  
The chemical compound of the elements of Matter, but more
precisely, the chemical connection between functioning units of the sublevel C
(that is atoms) serves as a forming base of structures of the level D. As a result
of that fng. units of the new level (molecules) are being formed, each of them has its
strictly definite fnl. features, most of which have been studied well by nowadays.

  
Let us consider briefly the mechanism of the functioning
of the chemical connection.

  
All numerous chemical processes are going on as a result of
the mutual re-grouping of atoms being accompanied by breaks of old fnl. links between
them and the generation of new ones within the limits of structures of fnl. cells of
elements of the present sublevel. There are no chemical reactions during which the links
between fnl. cells, occupied by different atoms, would not modify. The electronic covers
of atoms, having entered into contacts with each other, are responsible outwardly for
this. Therefore we can safely affirm that it is their principal fnl. characteristic,
their function.

  
A contiguity of interacting atoms being accompanied by partial
recovering of their electronic covers is the necessary condition for the beginning of
a chemical connection between them. As an example, let us examine the mechanism of the
organisation of the simplest by structure formation of the present level - a molecule
of hydrogen.

  
The electron in an atom of hydrogen occupies a definite power
level, which is the lowest if the atom is not excited and is situated in an isolated
condition. During the closing in of two atoms their electrons experience attraction from
the sides of both atoms, which is increasing with the decrease in the distance between
them. However, at a certain phase the closing in of the atoms can be suspended owing to
the influence of repulsion forces between the electrons, as each of them has the negative
charge. Therefore a further interaction of the two atoms will be taking place depending
on the characteristic of the spins of their electrons. Electrons with parallel (equally
directed) spins (
) are pushing
off from each other, and electrons with antiparallel spins
(
)
are closing in, tightening into an electronic couple. This principle was already
mentioned by us during the description of the construction of atomic orbitals of
electronic covers of atoms.

  
Consequently, during the closing in of the two atoms of hydrogen,
two electrons, the spins of which are antiparallel, can enter into the space between the
atomic nuclei. As a result a stable diatomic systemic formation appears - a molecule of
hydrogen H₂, fnl.cells of which are filled in by fng. units of the sublevel
C - atoms of hydrogen. The total kinetic energy of the system of two atoms is
decreasing owing to its absorption during the generation of the system itself in the way
of transformation of a part of the kinetic energy of separate atoms into the potential
energy of connection of the molecule. The nuclei of connected atoms remain at a strictly
definite distance and are performing oscillations relative to each other. The balanced
internuclear distance, having the name 'a length of chemical connection', for a molecule
H₂ is equal 0,74 border="0"> at radii of hydrogen atoms 0,53 width="16" border="0">. A field of space between atomic nuclei, where the probability of
finding an electronic couple is at maximum, constitutes a molecular orbital. As we have
elucidated, two electrons with parallel spins cannot be situated there simultaneously.
Therefore during the closing in of two atoms, the electrons of which have parallel spins,
a molecule of hydrogen cannot be formed.

  
A chemical connection can arise both between separate atoms
of the periodical system of the sublevel C and between more complex fng. units -
molecules, ions, radicals... But in any case at its foundation a method of valency links
is used, the principle postulate of which is that the valency of any given unit is equal
to the number of its uncoupled electrons. If in an atom there are vacant orbitals (fnl.
cells of the level AA), which differ very little in the level of energy from
orbitals, having a couple of electrons, then a transition of one of the electrons is
possible to a vacant orbital of a neighbouring sublayer. As a result, the electrons
'uncouple' and become valency. However, to actualise such a transition of an electron
to another orbital, that is to excite the atom, one should expend a definite quantity
of extrasystemic energy. The number of generalised electronic couples defines the
covalency of an element.

  
Each fng. unit (an atom, an ion or a molecule) having in an
orbital an uncoupled electron, following the laws of motion of Matter in quality
(),
is striving to establish an atomic connection with partners and therefore has high
reactional ability, revealing itself first of all in reactions of substitution (Na +
H₂O = NaOH + H) and joining (H + H = H₂ or H + Cl = HCl).

  
The connection between atoms, being realised by the common
electronic couple, can arise in another way as well. If in an atomic orbital of one atom
(D) there are two electrons, and the other atom (A) has a vacant atomic orbital, then the
connection between them is being formed on the account of the couple of electrons of the
first atom (D:
А). The atom D, giving the electronic couple for forming the connection,
is a donor, and the atom A, having a vacant orbital, an acceptor.

  
The formation of a donor-acceptoral connection is taking place
quite differently from the mechanism of a covalency link, but brings the same result.
During it a complication of composition and structure of substances with formation of
complicated "complex" compounds is happening, bearing their strictly definite
functional load. As a rule, one of the atoms (usually the acceptor) taking up the position
in the centre is coordinating units around it, which are entering with it into the
donor-acceptoral connection, also having therefore the name of a coordinative link. Owing
to the coordinative link a chemical saturation of atom is taking place, as a result of
which the internal energy of the system of interacting atoms is going down. Because of
this the total valency of an atom (as a sum of all its links) can be high enough.

  
Thus during the establishment of a chemical connection, the atom
gives a partner either an atomic orbital with two vacant fnl. cells (an acceptor), or an
atomic orbital with one electron and one vacant fnl. cell, or an atomic orbital with a
couple of electrons - fng. units (a donor). Therefore the valency of an element is equal
to a total number of orbitals of its atom participating in the formation of chemical
connections. During the filling in by electrons fnl. cells of all possible atomic orbitals
an atom is becoming chemically saturated and incapable of establishing additional chemical
connections.

  
In a general case, an establishment of each additional valency
link leads to a further stabilisation of a molecule, and so the most steady molecules are
such, in atoms of which all stable atomic orbitals either are used for establishment of
connections or occupied by not divided couples of electrons.

  
A covalency, like a donor-acceptoral chemical connection,
is being established between atoms disposed in space relative to each other in a certain
manner - directionally. And so the more completely in space one is covered with the other
two atomic orbitals participating in a chemical connection, the less reserve of energy
electrons, being situated in the field of covering and actualising the connection, have,
and the more stable the chemical connection between these atoms is. The direction of
chemical connections in space gives all multiatomic particles (molecules, ions, radicals)