Kondrashin I. Dialectics of Matter

a definite configuration. An internal structure of a substance as well as its
fnl. features depend on it.

  
Parallel with the development of the structure of fng. units
of the level D, a further division of their fnl. features was going on. As an
example of this the division of units to diamagnetic and paramagnetic can serve. The
first ones put up resistance to the passage of the magnetic lines of force more than
'vacuum', and the second are passing them better than 'vacuum'. Therefore an external
magnetic field is forcing out diamagnetic substances and pulling in paramagnetic. Such
a difference in their behaviour is explained by peculiarities of their structural
construction, dictated by laws of lower organisational levels, the influence of which
defines the character of internal magnetic fields of a substance forming from its own
magnetic moments of nucleons and electrons. A magnetic moment of any atom is determined
mainly by the total spinal magnetic moment of electrons, as magnetic moments of protons
and neutrons are approximately by three grades less than moments of electrons. If two
electrons are in one orbital, then their magnetic fields are locking, as both of them
can have antiparallel spins. Thus, if in a substance, representing a sum of similar units,
magnetic moments of all electrons are mutually compensated, that is all electrons are
coupled, then this substance is diamagnetic. On the contrary, if in orbitals there are
idle electrons, then the substance reveals paramagnetics. Molecular hydrogen, nitrogen,
fluorine, carbon and lithium (in a gaseous state) can serve as examples of diamagnetic
substances. Molecular boron, oxygen, nitric oxide relate to paramagnetic.

  
Substances with anomalously high magnetic receptivity
(for example, ferrum) relate to ferromagnetic. However, ferromagnetism is revealing
by them only in a solid state.

  
Here we should also note, that one of the important types of
chemical connection, originated within the period of motion of Matter in her evolution
along the level D, are oxidizing-restorative reactions. Those are the reactions,
as a result of which the grades of elements' oxidation are being changed, that is mutual
relative displacement of electrons of substances, that have entered the reaction, is
taking place, at the same time an output of electrons by some molecules is going on
(oxidation) and joining them by the others (reduction). Oxidizing-restorative reactions
are playing a big part in biological systems' activity, and such processes as
photosynthesis, breathing, digestion, etc. can happen only because of them.

  
Thus, during the evolution of Matter along the organisational
level D, the functional differentiation of atoms became a cause of their
structural integration into molecules.

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Igor I. Kondrashin Dialectics of Matter

Dialectical Genesis of
Material Systems
(continuation)

Level F

The motion of Matter along the coordinate of quality
() goes
on with more acceleration (that is at shorter periods of time -
) in the systems,
where the motion in space ( width="30" border="0">) is limited. Owing to this the spatial localisation of
fng. units of levels of high organisation, having occurred at a certain stage of the
Evolution of material substance as a result of the regrouping of the structure
of the Universe into star-planetary formations because of the constancy of the quantity
of the aggregate Energy, became the cause of the acceleration of the motion in
quality which is confirmed also by the formula
border="0"> border="0"> border="0"> border="0">. One of the hypothetically isolated centres of fnl. evolution
of Matter became from some time the star-planetary couple the Sun - the
Earth. The principal function of the Sun, as the centre with a predominance
of the entropic factor of the system, became:

  
1) the permanent (donor) provider of the whole systemic
formation with fng. units of the sublevel AA, a part of which continuously fills
in the fnl. cells on the Earth corresponding to them;

   2) the replenishment of the microenergetic balance
on the Earth because of the possession by the said units of a definite impulse (mV).
It is calculated that on all those purposes the Sun expends as a whole about 4 million
tons of its mass per every second.

  
The planet the Earth in its turn is the centre with
a predominance of the energetic factor in this bipolar bunch and it serves as
an arena for the motion of Matter along the coordinate of quality
()
at unknown yet in dimensions part of the Universe. Owing to this the subject
of our research acquires a more limited space - the surface of the Earth's
sphere.

  
The development of fng. units of the sublevel E
was going on our planet at an early stage of its existence. It is not ruled out that
analogous processes are happening as well on the other planets of the Solar system.
Nonetheless, starting from the organisational level F, to which the simplest
high-molecular compounds are attributed, the description of the systemic processes
can be confirmed by the facts only from the history of our planet, as we have no
trustworthy information yet about their presence on other planets and we can assume
such a possibility only theoretically.

  
Besides the formation of fng. units of the new level the
acceleration of the motion along the coordinate of quality was occurring also
owing to a rise of the coefficient of their polyfunctioning. For the systemic organisation
of the sublevel F the most useful turned out to be the atoms of carbon
C and silicon Si, able because of the peculiarities of their structural construction
to make up four chemical connections. If the connections are establishing with fng. units
identical to them, then a substance in a solid state is existing only in the form of
atomic crystals. The entire volume of such a substance is as if pierced by a thick
three-dimensional lattice of atomic links and it is impossible to pick out in it some
separate parts - islets, chains or layers.

  
The most widespread minerals on the surface of the Earth's
lithosphere - ordinary and compound silicates - have as the principal construction block
an atom of silicon in the tetrahedrons surrounding of four atoms of oxygen. In nature
there are three main modifications of the dioxide of silicon (SiO₂):

  
1) quartz, which is thermodynamically
steady below 870^oС;

   2) tridimit, steady from 870^oС
to 1470^oС;

   3) crystobalit, steady above 1470^oС.

  
Thus, silicon is one of the most widespread elements in the
earth crust. It constitutes 27% of the explored part of the earth crust occupying by
prevalence the second place after oxygen. Silicon is the principal element in the
compositions of minerals, rocks and soils.

  
The most widespread element of the earth crust is oxygen.
In a free state it is in the atmospheric air, in a bound state it forms part of water,
minerals, rocks as well as all organic substances. The total quantity of oxygen in the
earth crust is near a half of its mass (about 47%). The natural oxygen consists of three
stable isotopes: ¹⁶O - (99,76%), ¹⁷O - (0,04%)
and ¹⁸O - (0,2%).

  
However, the biggest load in the systemic organisation of Matter
falls on compounds, a part of which carbon forms. Though its total content in the earth
crust is only about 0,1%, by a great number and a variety of its compounds carbon occupies
an absolutely particular position among other elements and has the highest coefficient
of polyfunctioning among fng. units of the level F. The number of the scrutinised
compounds of carbon is estimated nowadays roughly at two million, while compounds of
all the other elements, all together, are calculated only by hundreds of thousands. The
variety of compounds of carbon is explained by an ability of its atoms to get mixed up
in between the formation of lengthy chains or coils.

  
As it was already noted, by the character of their connections
compounds of fng. units are divided into homodesmical and heterodesmical, that serves as
one more evidence of the availability of the motion of Matter in quality
().
In the case of the existence in nature of only homodesmical connections, that are typical
for centres of the energetic factor, the Evolution of Matter would have reached a deadlock,
as the structural regrouping of fng. units of the present level would have led to the
construction of systems of the level E only with the compact crystal packing. The
energy of systems would have volatilized, and the Earth would have turned into a dead
stone-metallic globe. The availability of the motion of Matter in quality rules
out such a course of events. Therefore the existence of homodesmical systems equally with
the action of centres with the entropic factor is conducive to the creation of different
high-molecular compounds, each of them bearing this or that new fnl. load additional to
the total existing spectrum of functions of the evolving Matter. Functional features of
high-molecular compounds first of all are bound with the ability of macromolecules to
modify their form without breaking their connections. The mechanism explaining the variety
of conformations of macromolecules nowadays is well studied and is widely being used in
the chemistry of polymer materials. Therefore we shall not dwell on its description. It
is important only to underline here once again that, whatever construction high-molecular
compounds would have, whatever their structure would be, we can always define in them
invisible fnl. cells and occupying them real fng. units of different sublevels, that is
different atoms, molecules, etc. If a fng. unit were to fall out of this or that fnl. cell
or fill it in by a fng. unit not corresponding to it this will lead to the destruction
of the structure of a given system or to an alteration of its fnl. features.

  
In connection with the complexity of their structural
construction and the presence of a great number of links all high-molecular
compounds exist only in a condensed state - solid or liquid. However, by phase
state they correspond more to the structure of liquid, which owing to a high
viscosity seems to us in most cases a solid body.

  
Complex compounds, very various both by the construction
and the functional features, constitute a special subgroup of systemic formations
of the sublevel F. But in the evolution of the material substance at the present
organisational level they play more a secondary, or rather an auxiliary part. Further,
at the levels of higher organisation of the material forms, their part is increasing.
In particular, such most important natural compounds, determining Life on the Earth,
as haemoglobin and chlorophyll, are attributed to intracomplex compounds. The structures
of their nuclei are alike, only the fnl. cell of the unit, that initiates the formation
of a certain complex, in chlorophyll is occupied by Mg²⁺, while in haemoglobin
by Fe²⁺. By two vacant coordinational places two more molecules of other
substances join easily those units-initiators of complexes occupying the free fnl. cells.
So, in haemoglobin from one side of the plate of chelate a molecule of globin protein
is connected by ferrum, and from the other side - a molecule of oxygen, owing to which
this compound is a carrier of oxygen.

  
The functional evolution of Matter in the sublevel F
and the appearance of new structural formations were and are occurring owing to various
transformations of substances by means of the redistribution of electronic densities
between the atoms forming them, that leads to the breaking of the preceding and the
creation of new intrastructural connections. However, it is enough to remember such
chemical transformations as an explosion of gun-powder and the rusting of iron to assert
that different structural modifications are moving with quite different velocities -
from extremely high to very low. The causes of this are specific peculiarities of every
reorganisation, that depend on a balanced spreading of a newly formed structure
()
in space-time ( border="0">) under present conditions as well as the qualitative characteristic
of fng. units participating in the reaction.

  
Intervals of the duration time of different chemical reactions
per a unit of space vary from parts of a second to minutes, hours, days. Some reactions
are known to need several years, decades and even longer periods of time for their
continuance. If a reaction goes in a homogeneous system, then it is going in the entire
volume of this system. As a result of the reaction, as a rule, a heterogeneous system
appears:

H₂SO₄ + Na₂S₂O₃
= Na₂SO₄ + H₂O + SO₂ src="images/symm21.gif" height="15" width="7" border="0"> + S src="images/symm20.gif" height="15" width="7" border="0">

With any monophase mixture, the liquid solution of different substances can serve as
examples of a homogeneous system. If a reaction is going between substances, forming a
heterogeneous system, then it can go only on the surface of a phase division forming the
system. So, for example, a dissolution of a metal in an acid Fe + 2HCl = FeCl₂
+ H₂ can go
only on the surface of the metal because it is only here that both reacting substances
come into contact one with the other. The result of the reaction is again a heterogeneous
system, which under the conditions of lack of locking by means of a dismissal of one of
its phases can become a homogeneous system. As examples of heterogeneous systems we can
designate the following systems: some water with ice, a saturated solution with sediment,
sulphurs in the atmospheric air. At higher stages of the Evolution of Matter as examples
of homogeneous systems can be brakes of plants functionally of the same type (a forest,
meadow grass, orchards), united groups of animals functionally of the same type (a herd
of sheeps, a pack of wolves or monkeys). Heterogeneous systems in this case will be:
a herd of horses at a meadow, a team of lumbermen in a forest, production enterprises,
etc. Chemical kinetics is engaged in the study of conditions having an influence on
velocities of chemical reactions. At higher stages of the Evolution of Matter these
problems should be referred to the biological and to the social kinetics accordingly.

  
The following factors are referred to as the most important,
having an influence on velocities of reactions, that go in systems of the level F:
functional peculiarities of reacting substances, their concentrations, temperature, the
presence of catalysts in a system. Velocities of some heterogeneous reactions depend also
on the intensity of the flow of a liquid or a gas near the surface, where a reaction is
going. After entering into a reaction of fng. units of two different substances fng. units
of a third, a fourth, and etc. substance is being created, which fill in fnl. cells
corresponding to them, though theoretically the process is occurring in the opposite
order: at first an invisible fnl. cell (C) of a new quality appears, then there
is the closing in of obvious fng. units (a and b) and the creation of a
new fng. unit (c), which fills in the fnl. cell (C), are going. Therefore
velocities of reactions depend on a capacity of reacting substances because of their
structural constructions to create new fng. units, that is of spatial locations and
mutual connections of initial fng. units of qualitative sublevels, on proportion and
quantity of fng. units (a and b) entering into reactions, that is
characterised by their concentrations.

  
Their mutual closing in and collision of one with another
(costroke) is the necessary condition so that between particles (molecules, ions) of
initial substances a chemical interaction would occur. Speaking precisely, particles
should approach each other so much, that atoms of one of them would feel the influence
of electrical fields originated by atoms of the other one. Only in such a case would
those transitions of electrons and regroupings of atoms become possible, resulting in
the formation of molecules of new substances - products of a reaction. However, not
every collision of molecules of reacting substances leads to the origination of the
product of a reaction. In order that a reaction occurs, that is new molecules form, it
is necessary to break or to weaken the connections between the atoms in molecules of
initial substances. That requires the spending of some energy. If colliding molecules
do not have enough energy, then their collision would not lead to the formation of
a molecule: having come into a collision they fly away in different directions like
elastic balls.

  
If the kinetic energy of colliding molecules is enough to weaken
or to break the connections, then a collision can initiate a reorganisation of atoms and
the formation of a molecule of a new substance. Therefore only those molecules that have
a surplus of energy in comparison with the average reserve of energy of all molecules can
overcome such an 'energetic barrier' in order to get into a chemical contact with each
other. The surplus energy that molecules should have in order that their collision could
lead to the formation of a new substance is named the energy of activation of a given
reaction. The molecules that have such energy are named active molecules. The surplus
energy of those molecules can be forward or rotary for a molecule as a whole, vibratory
for atoms, forming it, the energy of excitement for electrons, etc. For each specific
reaction only one kind of surplus energy can be principal. With a rise of temperature
the number of active molecules is increasing and as a result of that the velocities
of chemical reactions are accelerating as well.

  
The energy of activation of different reactions is different.
Its magnitude is the factor by which the influence of reacting substances tells on the
velocity of a reaction. For some reactions the energy of activation is insufficient,
for others, on the contrary, it is more than enough. If the energy of activation is too
insufficient, then it means that most collisions between particles of reacting substances
lead to a reaction. The velocity of such a reaction is high. On the contrary, if the
energy of activation is more than enough, then it means that only a very small number
of collisions of interacting particles leads to a chemical reaction. The velocity of
such a reaction is very little.

  
The reactions, which require some appreciable energy of
activation in order to move, start from the breaking or weakening of connections between
atoms in molecules of initial substances. During it the substances are getting over into
an unsteady intermediate state, which is characterised by a large reserve of energy -
an activated complex. Precisely for the formation of which the energy of activation is
essential. An unstable activated complex is in existence for a very short time. It is
decomposing with the formation of the products of the reaction, during which energy is
going out. In a simplest case an activated complex is a configuration of atoms, in which
the previous connections are weakened and new ones are being formed. An activated complex
arises as an intermediate state during both direct and reverse reaction. Energetically
it differs from initial substances by a magnitude of energy of activation of a direct
reaction and from final substances - by energy of activation of a reverse reaction.
Activation of molecules is possible during the heating or dissolution of a substance,
while emitting energy during a reaction itself, while absorbing by them quantums of
radiation (light, radio-active, X-ray, etc.), under an effect of supersound or of
electrical discharge and even from strokes into sides of a jar.

  
The velocity of a reaction often depends on the presence in
a system of the 'third' component, with which reagents can compose an activated complex.
During that an alteration of the velocity of a reaction occurs owing to the alteration
of the energy of its activation as intermediate stages of the process would be different.
The additional component, which is named a catalyst, after the destruction of the activated
complex, does not form part of the products of a reaction, therefore the general equation
of the process remains the same. In most cases the effect of a catalyst can be explained
by the fact that it reduces the energy of activation of a reaction. In the presence of a
catalyst the reaction is going through different intermediate stages, whereas without it,
moreover, those stages energetically are more accessible. In other words, in the presence
of a catalyst different activated complexes arise, while for their formation less energy
is required than during the formation of activated complexes that arise without a catalyst.
Thus the energy of activation is going down - some molecules, the energy of which was
insufficient for active collisions, now become active.

  
If a reaction A + B height="15" width="18" border="0"> AB is going with a slow velocity, then it is
possible to find a substance K, that forms an activated complex with one of the
reagents, interacting in its turn with another reagent:

A + B border="0"> [A... K]; [A... K] + B width="18" border="0"> AB + K

If the energy of activation of these stages is lower than
the energy of activation of the process in the absence of K, then the total velocity of
the process is increasing considerably and such a catalysis is named positive. Otherwise,
the velocity of the process would decrease and a catalysis would be negative. Thus a
catalyst is a substance that alters the velocity of a reaction and remains after that
chemically invariable. A catalyst, present in a system in quantities of a thousand times
less than reagents, can alter the velocity of a reaction by hundreds, thousands, millions
of times. In certain cases under the effect of catalysts such reactions can be excited,
which without them practically do not go on in the given conditions. At the same
time, with the help of a catalyst it is possible to alter the velocity only of a
thermodynamically possible process. For slowing down undesirable processes or for
giving reactions more quiet character negative catalysts are used.

  
One can discern a homogeneous and a heterogeneous catalysis.
In case of a homogeneous catalysis the catalyst and reacting substances form one phase
(a gas or a solution). In case of a heterogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in the system
in the form of an independent phase and the reaction takes place on its surface.

  
The catalysis plays a very important part in biological systems.
Ferments - plain and complex proteins with big molecular mass - are active catalysts of
biological effect. Most of the chemical reactions going on in the digestive system, in
blood and cells of animals and men, are catalytic reactions. So, a saliva has the ferment
ptyalin, which catalyses the transformation of starch into sugar. The ferment pepsin,
present in the stomach, catalyses the desintegration of proteins. Half of an available
quantity of urea under ordinary conditions at the temperature 25^oC is