Kondrashin I. Dialectics of Matter

decomposed by water during 3200 years, but in the presence of the ferment urease the
time of its 'half-transformation' at the same temperature is only 10^-4 sec.
In total more than 30 thousand different ferments are functioning in the organism of
a man; each of them serves as an effective catalyst of the corresponding reaction.

  
On studying heterogeneous reactions, it is not difficult to
notice that they are closely linked with the processes of displacement of fng. units
of substances, entering a reaction, and new substances. So, to keep the process of the
burning of pieces of coal constant it is necessary that dioxide of carbon, forming during
this reaction, would be moved away all the time from the surface of the coal and new
quantities of oxygen would approach it. Therefore during a heterogeneous reaction one
can single out at least three stages:

  
1) supply of reacting substances;

   2) a chemical reaction itself;

   3) taking aside the products of the reaction.

  
The velocity of a chemical reaction, which in its turn can be divided into substages,
is determined by the velocity of the slowest substage. A stage, determining the velocity
of going of the reaction as a whole, is named the limiting stage. In one case it can be
a supply or taking aside substances, in another - a chemical reaction itself.

  
All chemical reactions are divided into irreversible and
reversible. Irreversible reactions are going till the end - until the complete consumption
of one of the reacting substances. Reversible reactions are going not till the end: during
a reversible reaction no one reacting substance is consumed completely. Consequently an
irreversible reaction can go only in one direction, and a reversible one - both in one and
in the reverse directions as well. At the beginning of a reversible reaction during the
mixture of the initial substances the velocity of the one-direction reaction is high and
the velocity of the reverse one is equal to zero. While a reaction is going on the initial
substances are being used up and their concentrations are declining. As a result of that
the velocity of the one-direction reaction is decreasing. At the same time products of
the reaction are being composed and their concentration is increasing. Owing to this the
reverse reaction starts going while its velocity gradually grows. When the velocities
of the one-direction and the reverse reactions become identical, the chemical (dynamic)
balance begins.

  
By changing the conditions a system is under - concentration
of substances, pressure, temperature - it is possible to alter the velocities of the
one-direction and the reverse reactions. Then the balance in the system is being broken
and moved in the direction of that reaction, the velocity of which became higher. So,
during the increase of the concentration of reagents, the velocity of the one-direction
reaction naturally is growing and the balance is being moved towards the one-direction
reaction, towards more output of products. More output of products can be obtained also
by systematically getting them out of the sphere of the reaction, which leads to the
decreasing of their concentration in the system and to the deceleration of the reverse
reaction in comparison with the one-direction one. For chemical systems, which contain
gaseous substances, changes of pressure have the same influence on the shift of the
balance as the changes of the concentration of gases. During that the velocity of that
reaction is changing more, in which more molecules of gases are participating. The
changing of temperature has influence on the displacement of the chemical balance for
processes accompanied by thermal effects. If a one-direction reaction is exothermal,
then the reverse one is endothermal, and vice versa. For reversible reactions the energy
of activation of an endothermal process is more the energy of activation of an exothermal
process. In its turn, the more E_act. is, the more the velocity of a reaction
depends on temperature. So, an increase of temperature is moving the chemical balance
toward an endothermal reaction, as a result of which heat is taken up and the system
is cooling down.

  
On comparing the changes of conditions under which a chemical
system is staying with its responding reaction to an outer influence, revealing itself
in the moving of the chemical balance, it is not difficult to notice that this reaction
always turns out to be opposite to the change of a condition. So, if the concentration
of some substance, which is in balance with other reacting substances, is being reduced,
then the balance is moving toward the reaction, increasing the concentration of this
substance. While increasing the pressure then that process starts going faster, which
decreases it, and during the rise in temperature - the process, that causes cooling of
the system. These observations form the chemical content of the general principle of
behaviour of systems, staying under given conditions in a state of the dynamic balance:
if a system, staying in balance, undergoes an influence from without by alteration of
some condition, determining the state of balance, then the balance in it is moving toward
the process, which leads to the reduction of the effect of the influence. This rule of
counteraction is known under the name the principle of La Chattily, formulated by him
in 1884.

  
Thus, for the carrying through of each chemical reaction
strictly definite reagents are needed in quantities providing the required going of the
reaction under a given temperature and other conditions at a definite velocity, which can
be commensurate with temporal intervals. Moreover, every chemical reaction, going under
given conditions, has its own definite systemic construction, constituting a combination
of fnl. cells which at certain moments are being filled in and set free by fng. units
corresponding to them according to the typical for a given reaction algorithm, reflecting
the moments of entering the reaction by reagents - fng. units, their possible interchange,
while all this is correlated with strictly definite periods of time, fixed by an
independent counter of time.

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Igor I. Kondrashin Dialectics of Matter

Dialectical Genesis of
Material Systems
(continuation)

Level H

By differentiating conceptually the cascade stages of the
Evolution of Matter, it is necessary to imagine clearly that the commencement of the
phase of the functional development of Matter along each following organisational level
and the stopping of its development along a preceding level are going on a parallel way,
simultaneously one with the other, for a considerable period of time. The formation and
accumulation of the humus layer of the soil on the Earth was taking place over many
hundreds of millions of years. At the same time this process was taking place
simultaneously with the beginning of the development of the biosphere and appearance
of Life on our planet. The formation of the biosphere took place mainly in the way of
the synthesis of fng. units of the humus horizon of the soil, which accumulates and
stores the fnl. systems - complexes of the organisational level G, that have
become at a certain stage as functioning units of the organisational level H,
from which later in its turn the creation of systems of the present sublevel -
aminoacids, proteins and other intracellular structures started.

  
All this happened in the period when, as it is known,
hydrocarbons and their simplest oxygen and nitrous derivatives appeared on the surface
of the Earth, being in water solution - in the primary earth's hydrosphere - under the
influence of the laws of motion of Matter in quality
(),
gradually being involved into reactions of polymerisation and condensation and in this
way being more and more integrated into different complex organic compounds, having
different functional features. Aminoacids, in particular, appeared in this mixture of
organic substances. Further structural integration of these fnl. systems according to
the outline:

resulted in the creation of coacervatical drops - individual protein complexes,
separated from surroundings by a definitely marked surface.

  
In coacervatical drops, as in any fnl. system of Matter of
the present organisational level, chemical processes of synthesis and decomposition
permanently are going on. But the duration of each individual reaction under the influence
of catalysts included into a system is so little and the frequency of reactions is so
great, that all processes are lasting practically continuously. This forms the impression
of the 'liveliness' of an examined object. Thus, velocities of synthesis and
decomposition of high-molecular organic compounds are the basis of the functioning of
all existing vital systems, while each of the going reactions has its strictly definite
algorithm. The correlation of frequency and velocities of the said processes depends
on an individual composition and organisation of every given system and also on its
coordination with the conditions of the surroundings. If in this correlation a balance
is kept, then a coacervatical drop, as any other system, acquires a dynamically steady
character. If the velocity and frequency of synthetic reactions predominate in it, then
it grows. Otherwise it decomposes to component fng. units. Thus there is a close link
between an individual systemic organisation of a given coacervatical drop, those chemical
transformations, that are happening in it in accordance with certain for its fnl. cells
algorithms, and its further destiny in given conditions of existence.

  
In the primary earth's hydrosphere coacervatical drops, which
have been created by the means of the synthesis of protein molecules, were floating not
just in water, but in a solution of various organic and inorganic substances, that is
prepared fng. units (of levels F - G). In accordance with the laws of
motion of Matter in quality ( height="15" width="27" border="0">) further integration of their structures was
running parallel with differentiation and growth of the number of fnl. cells entering
their system. But this was realised during long natural selection and only with respect
to those drops, the individual systemic organisation of which caused their dynamic
steadiness in given conditions of the surroundings and alteration of fnl. qualities on
the way of creation by them of new fng. units of a higher organisational level. Only such
coacervatical drops could exist for a long period of time, grow and divide into 'branch'
formations. Those drops, in which under the given conditions of surroundings chemical
changes did not lead to further complication of the systemic structure, carried out the
function of temporary accumulator of fng. units F, that is were formed under the
influence of the accumulative factor of the systemic development and after a certain
period of time of functioning they disintegrated into component fnl. complexes of lower
sublevels, stopping its existence as a systemic formation of the present organisational
level. Thus, as in any process of systemic organisation, coacervatical drops depending
on the factor organising them divided into functionally active and functionally passive.
The latter, though they could not play a vital part in the further development of protein
bodies, still were essential for that period of time, as they carried out functions
appropriate to them. So, already in the process itself of the coming into being of
Vitality a new regularity arose, which reminds a kind of 'natural selection' of individual
protein complexes. Under strict monitoring of this selection all further evolution of
protein coacervats was going on the way of permanent improvement of their fnl. cells'
structures. Exactly therefore that mutual coordination of phenomena was being created
in them (that is the collection of fnl. algorithms was being more and more renewed and
complicated), that fitness of internal composition to carrying out of vital functions
in the given conditions of the surroundings and that is typical for organisation of all
living creatures. The comparative study of metabolism in modern primitive organisms
reveals, how on the stated basis the high-organised order of phenomena was being created,
which is related to all living creatures and which was going in full conformity with the
general theory of evolving systems. Thus at a certain stage of the Evolution of Matter
the Vitality arose on the Earth, represented on our planet by a huge number of separate
individual systems - organisms. "Our definition of life", F. Engels wrote in
Anti-Duhring, "obviously is quite inadequate, as it is far away from the
point to comprehend all the phenomena of life, but on the contrary, is limited to the
most common and simplest among them... In order to give a really exhaustive explanation
about life, we would have to trace through all the forms of its revealing itself from
the lowest to the highest one."

  
As it is known, the beginning of the appearance of the simplest
vital systems occurred about two billion years ago in the proterozoic era. Primary living
creatures were generated in water during the process of a long evolution of dynamically
steady coacervatical drops, fnl. complexes of which were being included as components into
systems of the following organisational levels. Owing to that already at this stage of the
Evolution of Matter the mechanism of the construction of high-organised systems revealed
itself most fully and continued to perfect itself, one of the basic principles of which
is to fill in fnl. cells of a system not with single fng. units, but with whole blocks or
complexes of them. Under the influence of that principle fnl. systems of the organisational
level H were steadily absorbing protein complexes surrounding them, 'splitting'
them and filling in with the formed blocks free fnl. cells of their structures, in the
end synthesising from them fng. units of a higher organisational level. Meanwhile the
energy, emitted during the desintegration of complexes, was used mostly to carry out
reactions of synthesis. All that finally ensured the most ancient forms of the organisation
of Life, to which bacteria, various types of algae and fungi should be attributed.
Vegetable and animal organisms contemporary with us, including Man, at the present moment
in time are the results of all the historical Evolution of Matter along the organisational
level H during a period of many millions of years. We will not scrutinise in detail
all the phases of phylogenesis of vegetable and animal world, which are well known. We
shall dwell only on the main peculiarities of the motion of Matter in quality at
these organisational levels in order to make certain that they are also linked indissolubly
with the regularities of the Evolution of Matter along all the previous sublevels, that
their direct extension is inseparable from them and together with them forms a unified
developing systemic organisation of material substance.

  
So Life arose as a result of a complex systemic integration
of fng. units of all the sublevels, attributed to the number of so called 'inorganic'
elements. This process was going directionally during a long period of time and consisted,
equally with the perfecting of spatial structures of fnl. cells of any level, in the
selection and consolidation of an optimal set of algorithms for each of these cells and
also of an optimal period of functioning for fng. units filling them in. The division of
substances into inorganic and organic has a rather conceptual character, but it is used
to consider that most of compounds, the composition of which includes carbon, are
attributed to the category of organic, as in the nature they are met almost solely in
organisms of animals and vegetables, take part in vital processes or are the products
of the vital activity or desintegration of organisms.

  
Despite the variety of natural organic substances they usually
consist of a great number of elements of the same type - fng. units of previous sublevels;
their composition besides carbon almost always includes hydrogen, often oxygen and
nitrogen, sometimes sulphur and phosphorus. These elements are named organogenes, that
is generating organic molecules. The phenomena of isomeria spread widely among organic
compounds, that is structural variety of systemic formation of fnl. cells. As a result,
systems have quite different fnl. features with the same quantitative collection
of fng. units. Therefore the phenomena of isomeria in particular causes an enormous
variety of organic substances, concurrently raising more and more the coefficient of
polyfunctionality of fng. units that meets the requirement of the accelerated motion
of Matter in quality, characteristic for the present organisational level. One
of the important peculiarities of organic compounds, which tells on all their chemical
features, is the character of links between atoms in their molecules. In the overwhelming
majority these links have clearly expressed a covalent character. Therefore organic
substances in majority are not electrolytes, do not dissociate in solutions to ions and
comparatively slowly interact, one with the other. Time, which is necessary to complete
reactions between organic substances, is usually measured in hours and sometimes in days.
That is why in organic chemistry the participation of different catalysts has especially
great importance.

  
Many of the known organic compounds carry out the functions of
vehicles, participants or the products of processes, going on in animal organisms, or -
such as ferments, hormones, vitamins and others - are biological catalysts, initiators
and regulators of these processes. According to the theory of the chemical composition
of organic substances, the functional characteristics of compounds depend on:

  
1) the collection of fng. units, which determines
their qualitative and quantitative composition;

   2) the structural location in space of fnl. cells
of a system, affecting chemical features of substances;

   3) the aggregate of algorithms of fnl. cells of
a given system, which determine the order of

   a) consecutive filling
in of fnl. cells with appropriate fng. units,

   b) their functioning and

   c) subsequent desintegration
of subsystems.

  
The variety of organic compounds is caused first of all by
fnl. characteristics of atoms of carbon to combine one with another by covalent links,
originating carbonic chains practically of unlimited length.

During the process of the Evolution of Matter along the
organisational level H organic compounds were gradually being formed, which
represented more and more dynamically stable fnl. systems, which in their turn later
became fng. units in systems of a higher order. To such dynamically stable organic
compounds aminoacids, in particular, can be attributed. The general formula of their
creation is the following:

where R - fnl. cell of hydrocarbonic radical, which can be occupied as well
by other different fng. units.

From hundreds and thousands of molecules of aminoacids
(as fng. units) more complex molecules of proteinous substances or proteins (fnl. systems)
are being synthesised, which dissociate on the expiry of the period of their functioning
under the influence of mineral acids, alkalis or ferments to fng. units composing them -
aminoacids in order to give them an opportunity later again to form part of a composition
of new compounds in the process of being created, that is to fill in new fnl. cells
appropriate to them. And this process repeats itself continually an infinite number
of times.

  
The importance of proteins is also well known. They take a
significant part in all vital processes, and are carriers of Life. Proteins themselves
as fng. units form part of more complex systems and subsystems of organisms, and are
contained in all cells, tissues, in blood, bones, etc. Ferments (enzymes), many hormones
constitute complex proteins.

  
All varieties of protein are formed by different combinations
of 20 aminoacids; while for each protein the structural construction of a system of fnl.
cells is strictly specific, being filled in by appropriate aminoacids and other fng. units,
and also the aggregate of its algorithms, that is the temporal sequence of the unfolding
of the system of a protein (filling in its fnl. cells by fng. units), of the functioning
and desintegration of its subsystems. In the structure of proteinous systems one can
distinguish subsystemic block-formations of peptides, the composition of which includes
two or more aminoacids connected by peptidase links ( -- CO -- NH -- ).
These formations represent one of intermediate stages of the organisational development
of Matter.

  
Further perfecting of proteinous systems' structures was going
by means of the association of aminoacids' polymers into peptidase chains and cyclical
formations in combinations having different quantitative ratios and sequence of fnl.
cells. As a result of this process an inexhaustible diversity of chemical structures of
aminoacids' macro-polymers were created, each of them being a complex systemic combination
of fng. units included into it of all organisational sublevels, represented at the same
time a new group of fng. units of higher order, prepared to fill in appropriate fnl. cells
of new hypersystems destined for it. Meanwhile each functioning unit - protein possessed
its own strictly individual peculiarities of formation, an invariable number of fnl. cells
of its structure, a strictly definite combination of them and algorithms of formation,
functioning and desintegration, that gave to every fng. unit inherent only in it fnl.
features corresponding to a certain point on the coordinate of motion of Matter in
quality.

  
Simultaneously the coefficient of polyfunctioning of
individual fng. units continued to grow. The principle of the action of the mechanism
of polyfunctioning comes to the following. If to take some fng. unit with definite fnl.
features and to put it subsequently now into one, now into another fnl. cell, and it
meanwhile can normally carry out algorithms essential for the given fnl. cells, then
that would mean that the attribute of polyfunctioning is inherent in it. The bigger
number of fnl. cells of different structures a given fng. unit can occupy in turn during
a certain period of time, the higher is its coefficient of polyfunctioning. As a rule,
each unit can occupy simultaneously only one fnl. cell of some structure. As an example
it is possible to mention any chemical element, the type of hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine,
that can form part of many chemical compounds, but at this very moment are only in one
of them. Another kind of polyfunctioning is the removal of a fng. unit x
from some fnl. cell of a system and placing there a fng. unit y or
z, owing to which fnl. features of a given systemic formation would change
accordingly. After the return displacement of fng. units the system again finds its
primary fnl. features; and therefore the more frequent substitution of fng. units in
its fnl. cells during a certain period of time height="14" width="19" border="0"> a given system admits, the higher its coefficient
of polyfunctioning is. In this case as examples can serve all reversible chemical
reactions of substitution of the type H₂O + Cl₂ =
2HCl + O₂, cells of hydrocarbonaceous radical R in the structure
of aminoacids, etc.

  
Aminoacids forming part of a proteinous molecule keep free and
reaction able their specific polyfunctional cells, the chemical functions of which consist
in the ability to connect different systemic groupings. This causes the interaction of
proteins with the most different substances, creating exceptional chemical opportunities,
which no other substances of the present sublevel have. Due to this the proteins, forming,
for example, part of alive protoplasm, combine into complexes with other compounds - from
water and mineral substances to all kinds of organic compounds, including other proteins.
These complexes, depending on the factor forming them, can be rather stable and be formed
in quantities essential for the creation of hypersystems. As examples of such complexes
serve various composite proteins - nucleoproteids, chromoproteids, lipoproteids,
metalloproteids, etc. - they participate in the creation of hypersystemic structures
and at the same time take an important part in their functioning because of their
catalytic characteristics. Besides stable compounds, proteins are also able to form
extremely ephemeral complexes, the period of functioning of which is comparatively short.
Obeying appropriate algorithms these compounds quickly arise and, after having functioned,
also quickly decompose. Thus through the mechanism of polyfunctioning the most various
elements from accumulative subsystems are being involved into metabolism of organisation
of life of Matter for temporary use of their fnl. features in that or this systemic
formation.

  
After filling in fnl. cells of multi-molecular compounds with
separate individual proteins - fng. units, new systemic units are being formed, physical
and chemical features of which essentially differ from the features of separate proteins
included into their composition. Associating between themselves proteins create whole
molecular swarms, representing different structural formations of an alive substance. It
is rather essential that fnl. features of proteins, their ability to react to different
substances and to associate into multimolecular complexes, is defined not only by the
composition and location of aminoacidous residues, but also by the spatial configuration
of proteinous molecules, that is by the relative location in space of certain parts of
its structure. The chemical interaction of side radicals and polar groups of aminoacidous
residues, acting intramolecularly, initiates a natural rolling of peptidase chains of
proteinous molecules and the unification of them into balls, into so named proteinous
globules, having a regulated spatial configuration. In the inner structure of proteinous
globules certain sections of peptidase chains and locked up rings turn out to be located
in a particular way with regard to each other and mutually consolidated by means of the
sewing together of these sections by hydrogen or other durable links. The structure of
that kind causes defined dimensions and the contour of proteinous molecules. It can
approximate to spherical or be very stretched out. These or those alterations of a
globule's outer milieu have a great influence on its contour, much compressing or, vice
versa, stretching it out. Alternating fnl. features of protein, even while keeping
constant its aminoacidous composition, depend on that which active groupings of fng.
units of aminoacidous residues at a given configuration of a globular ball prove to be
located on the surface and therefore accessible to chemical interaction, and which would
be concealed inside, protected, 'shielded' by neighbouring groupings. That is why even
very insignificant changes of spatial architectonics of a globule strongly influence
the chemical reactivity of protein and on those finely nuance its characteristics that
determine the biological specificity of each individual proteinous compound. This
originated during the process of the Evolution of Matter, one more and more complex and
fine mechanism of polyfunctioning assisted by being dictated by the laws of the Evolution
accelerated motion of Matter along the category of quality
().
Its role for the organisation of alive substance increased especially after the principal
function of this mechanism was determined - by means of the modification of the
configuration of proteinous globules to regulate their fermentous activity.

  
It is known that chemical reactions are being accomplished
between organic compounds in living organisms with very big velocities, though quite
measurable, but absolutely incomparable with those which are being observed during the
interaction of these compounds in an isolated and refined shape outside living bodies.
The reason for this is that in the composition of alive protoplasm there are always
present special biological accelerators - ferments, named proteins (if they are plain)
or proteids (if composite), in which the protein is combined into a complex with a
nonproteinous ('prosthetic') group - in most cases with a metalloorganic compound or
with some vitamin. Due to this, in every live cell a whole collection of various ferments
is present as most proteins and proteids possess fermentous activity. Thus ferments
constitute the bulk of protoplasmic proteins. The circumstance, that the basis of
fermentous complexes always is some fermentous globules possessing certain architectonics,
causes several peculiarities, which distinguish ferments from other catalysts. That is
first of all the exceptional catalytic power of ferments. A large number of inorganic and
organic compounds of lower organisational levels are known to be able to accelerate the
same reactions as ferments do. The mechanism of action of any catalyst is rather simple
and reminiscent of the action of a key being put into some system. During the reactions
of decomposition the free links of a catalyst neutralise forces of connections, combining
fng. units together into one system, and it desintegrates to components. In reactions of
synthesis the catalyst, by giving its free links, accelerates the process of combining