fng. units. However, the complexity and perfection of the systemic structure of ferments
increased much more the power of their catalytic influence by comparison with less
organised catalysts, which reflected on the shortening of the time of the duration of
reactions, that is of reconstructing of the structure-principal. So, for example, ions
of ferrum decompose peroxide hydrogen to oxygen and water. An appropriate ferment
(cattalos), constituting a combination of a ferro-porphyric complex with a specific
protein, possesses the same effect. But it accomplishes this reaction ten billion times
faster, than inorganic ferrum. In other words, 1 mg of ferrum, included in a fermentous
complex, by its catalytic activity can substitute 10 tons of inorganic ferrum. Thus,
ferments are relatively composite systemic formations of the level H, the main
function of which is to provide adjustments in a certain diapason of time of structural
reconstructing of hypersystems, into which they are included, in accordance with the
injunctions of becoming more complicated algorithms of hyperpolyfunctioning, that
is correlations of systemic structures depending on modifications of their fnl.
characteristics. Therefore even minor alterations in the structural construction of
a fermentous complex, a transposition of some radicals in the prosthetic group or a
breach of the architectonics of the proteinous component, initiate the abrupt lowering
of catalytic activity of a given ferment. Hence, in the systemic organisation of ferments
accordance between the structural construction of fnl. cells and the function of an entire
given system is also being confirmed, which is natural for all stages and levels of the
cascadous Evolution of Matter in general.
The spatial configuration of proteinous globules also determines
by itself the second peculiarity of ferments - the high specificity of their action, that
is monofunctioning. In other words, each ferment is capable of catalysing only its own,
strictly definite reaction. Therefore, if there is some organic substance capable of
several chemical combinations, then in the presence of this or that ferment it would
react quickly only in one strictly definite direction, carrying out by that an appropriate
algorithm of a given system.
Finally, the specific structure of proteins also determines by
itself the third characteristic for ferments feature - their exclusive sensitivity to
different kinds of influences. So, under certain physical or chemical influences of the
most different kind (even then, when these influences do not affect peptidase and other
covalent links of a proteinous molecule), the specific spatial architectonics of a globule
may be changed and even broken, and its being in an ordered structural configuration
can be irreversibly disrupted. In this case peptidase chains take a disorderly spatial
disposition and protein from globular turns into a feebler state - the so named
denaturalisation of proteins occurs, during which they lose several of those of their
specific biologically important characteristics, caused by the definite architectonics
of each type of proteinous molecule. At the same time fermentous characteristics of
proteins vanish completely. However, during more gentle influences the catalytic activity
of a fermentous complex may be kept till a certain extent, undergoing only some
quantitative changes. Therefore any, even rather insignificant alterations of physical
or chemical conditions in the surroundings, where a given fermentous reaction is taking
place, are always reflected in the modification of its character and velocity. All these
features of proteins constituted the foundation of the qualitative Evolution of Matter
along the organisational level H, in the systems of which more and more extending
fnl. differentiation of fng. units and structural integration of fnl. cells were taking
place.
Each fng. unit, having got into a fnl. cell corresponding to
it, is functioning within it for a certain period of time determined by the algorithms,
afterwards it leaves it, giving up the place to a new fng. unit with the same fnl.
characteristics. Having left one fnl. cell, the fng. unit is moving into another,
dictated to it by algorithms, cell, etc. This process is going on continuously,
periodically resuming and reiterating, which is why the impression of moving fng. units
- substances through the systemic structure of each given formation is given, during
which the system absorbs fng. units (or their complexes), certain time utilises them
inside itself and then puts out beyond its limits. This perpetual motion is being
regulated and tuned by an aggregate of appropriate algorithms of every system, while
reactions constantly going in the system attach to it peculiar 'liveliness'. Due to this,
during so called metabolism very plain and sometimes monotonous chemical reactions of
oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, phosphorolysis, the breaking of carbonic links, etc.,
(which can be reproduced also outside the system of the organism) are organised in a
certain way and matched in time by appropriate algorithms as well as subordinated to the
functional interests of their system as the integrated unified whole. These reactions
are taking place in systems of the level H not occasionally, not chaotically, but
according to a strictly definite mutual sequence, fixed by algorithms. That colossal
variety of organic compounds, which by nowadays is represented in the world of living
creatures, is caused not by the diversity and complexity of separate individual reactions,
but by the diversity of their combinations, and the modification of that sequence, in
which they are going on in any cell of a living organism in this or that phase of its
development. In other words, the evolution of systems of the present level of the
organisation of Matter turned out to be even more dependent on the appearance of new
algorithms, the perfection of structures of fnl. cells and the timely filling of them
in with appropriate fng. units. The sequence of chemical reactions, caused by appropriate
algorithms, is at the basis of both the synthesis and desintegration of alive substance,
at the basis of such vital phenomena as fermentation, breathing, photosynthesis, etc.
Molecules of sugar and oxygen, carbonic acid and water are in this case only initial and
final links in the long chain of chemical transformations, while being originated as a
result of one reaction an intermediate substance (fng. complex) immediately enters into
the next strictly definite, for a given life process, reaction. If one changes this
sequence, eliminates or substitutes though any one link in the chain of transformations,
pre-determined by a given algorithm, the entire process as a whole changes absolutely or
is even completely broken.
At the basis of the mechanism of these phenomena there is
a tight synchronisation of the velocities of separate chemical reactions, constituting
displacements of fng. units of lower sublevels from some fnl. cells to other ones. Any
organic substance can react in very many directions, that is it has rather big and various
possibilities, however their realisation can go with quite different velocities depending
on the totality of those conditions, in which a given reaction is taking place. It is
clear, that if in given conditions some reaction is going rather fast, but all the other
potentially possible reactions are going relatively slowly, then the practical importance
of these latter reactions in the whole process of metabolism proves to be quite
insignificant. In other words, various ways of chemical transformations are opened before
every organic substance of protoplasm, but practically each getting there from the milieu
compound or every originating intermediate product would change during metabolism only in
that direction in which they are reacting with the highest velocity. All the other slowly
going reactions just have no time during the same period to be realised in any significant
quantity.
Entering the process of the metabolism as reagents, fng. units
- substratum are filling in with themselves fnl. cells destined strictly for them in
the structure of a given system, in which at a certain moment of time according to the
injunction of the algorithms they are entering into a complex compound with appropriate
protein-ferment. Each such complex is an unstable formation, but reliable enough to
accomplish some essential function. After having functioned, it is undergoing very
quickly a further transformation, while the substratum is changing in an appropriate
direction, that is fng. units composing it go over into other fnl. cells, and the ferment
regenerates and can enter again into a complex with a new portion of the substratum for
keeping up the possibility of the fulfilment of an essential function by a given systemic
formation. Therefore, in order that any fng. unit could really participate in metabolism
in systems of the level H, it should come into an interaction with protein, form
with it a certain complex compound and only in this way realise its fnl. features. Owing
to this, the direction in which any organic compound is changing during metabolism,
depends not only on the individual molecular structure of composing fng. units and
determining its fnl. features, but also on the fnl. cell, to which each fng. unit of the
compound gets in and where it should form together with other fng. units - proteins a fnl.
complex with new fnl. features, capable of fulfilling this or that new function, obeying
the algorithms prevailing in a given system.
Because of the extremely fine specificity of fermentous proteins,
each of them having strictly individual fnl. features, they can only get in strictly
definite fnl. cells and, due to this, are capable of forming fnl. complexes only with
definite fng. units of the previous sublevels as well as catalysing only certain individual
reactions. Therefore, during the implementation of some life process, and moreover of the
entire metabolism as a whole, thousands of individual proteins-ferments are participating,
at the same time each of them is able to catalyse specifically only one individual
reaction, and only in the aggregate, in a certain combination of their activity they
create that natural order of phenomena, which is at the basis of the process of metabolism.
So, the metabolism, going constantly in systems of any living organism, is the most
complex ball of chemical transformations of interchange, where thousands of individual
reactions, regulated by a given aggregate of algorithms, are being united into a commonly
acting mechanism, and the essence of each reaction is to move this or that fng. unit
from one fnl. cell of the structure of a system to another one, while the moments of
transferences of fng. units along the cells are strictly coordinated all over the system,
alternated in a strictly definite order and with strictly signified fng. units and fnl.
cells participating in every transference. At the same time, the outer systemic and around
subsystemic milieu or, in other words, the systemic surroundings by units of foregoing
sublevels of Matter, are playing an important part in every reaction of the metabolism.
So, any rise or drop of the temperature, any alteration of the acid milieu, of the
oxidising potential or of the osmotic pressure, changes the ratio between the velocities
of individual fermentous reactions which are taking place in the system of a given living
organism, and therefore is changing their interconnection in time, that in its turn is
reflecting in the alterations of periods of functioning of these or those fng. units. Thus,
the systemic organisation of an alive substance is indissolubly linked with the around
systemic organisation of the milieu and constitutes with it the united whole. Besides,
the spatial organisation of fnl. cells in the structure of the alive substance has as
well a very big influence on the order and direction of fermentous reactions basic for
interchange. Hence, many tens and hundreds of thousands of chemical reactions, continually
going in every living organism, are not only strictly coordinated between themselves in
time by an innumerable number of times worked through algorithms, are not only combined
in a unified order of the entire structural organisation of its system and of the around
systemic milieu surrounding it, but the whole of this order itself is directed at keeping
up within a certain period of time hyperfunctional features of the whole given system
as a fng. unit of a higher level. Acquired anew meanwhile, fnl. features of proteinous
substances can become clear only after the studying of the peculiarities of their
functioning in an organism as fng. units of systems of a higher organisational level
of Matter.
In connection with the fact that from the moment the qualitative
forms of Matter enter into the so called 'live' phase of Evolution, the character of
the organisation of systems became more complicated, besides the organising principles,
characteristic for systems of the foregoing levels, such as:
1) the availability of strictly regulated
quantity of fnl. cells, unified into a single structure of links,
2) of fng. units filling them in
and appropriate to them,
3) of an aggregate of algorithms
of formation, functioning and desintegration,
4) of power supply source for the process
of the functioning of a system
for the organisational level H additional systems' forming factors became
required. Due to a bigger complicity of its fnl. systems the extension of their apparently
autonomous nature was going on, which practically constitutes only a bigger gap in levels
of the organisation of a system itself and of the around systemic milieu and which gave
ground to designate some of their features by the attaching of the half-word 'self':
self-renewal, self-adjustment, self-power-supplying and almost self-destruction. The
beginning of the development of appropriate subsystems in the general structure of an
organism, responsible for providing this or that specific function, became the foundation
of this autonomy. A bigger and bigger stratification of systems to subsystems, going
because of a further differentiation of functions, made the structure of systems more
complicated and required yet more precise intercoordination of its integrated components.
Therefore an aggregate of algorithms of every system was increasing gradually in quantity,
its qualitative composition was becoming better and better.
Everybody knows what an algorithm is. It is the order,
strictly regulated in time and space, of the consecutive transferences of fng. units from
one fnl. cell of the structure of a given level into another one. This order is compulsory
for systems of any organisational level, and is pre-determined for each of their fng.
units. Everything around us is subordinated to some algorithms. There are a lot of them
- from the most simple to the incredibly complicated ones. Among ordinary everyday
algorithms we can mention the algorithms of cooking (for example, of brewing tea, baking
cakes, etc.), of manufacturing tables or chairs, the cultivating of potatoes plants, etc.
Among super complicated ones we can indicate, for example, the algorithm of manufacturing
an aircraft carrier. Therefore in an ordinary cooking book algorithms of cooking are
enumerated, in sheet music - algorithms of the reproduction of musical works, and in
technological plans of the construction of houses or cars, of building roads - algorithms
of their construction. All the algorithms mentioned by us were drawn up by man during his
practical activity. But who was drawing up the algorithms for creating fnl. systems of
pre-organic and organic organisation of Matter? As already the algorithms of creation of
an atom of hydrogen or a molecule of aminoacid are rather not simple. Certainly, nobody
was inventing them. They were being drawn up by themselves, obeying the essential
necessity, emitting from the action of the laws of the Evolution of Matter, and first
of all, of its motion in the category of quality
(
).
As systemic structures were becoming more complicated already
in the first period of the organisation of living forms of Matter, the duration
of functioning of which is based, as it is known, on the principle of continual
substitution in them of blocks of fng. units, at a certain moment of the
organisational development a mechanism became required, that could provide the formation
of such blocks within a comparatively short time in order to replace by them the blocks
ending functioning in the fnl. cells without breaking fnl. features of an entire given
system as a whole. For this purpose in systems a special subsystem was being singled out
more and more, that was drawing up the algorithms of the formation of this or that block,
its spatial location in the entire structure and a temporal sequence of transferences of
fng. units of a given level from some fnl. cells to others. As it is known, in pre-organic
systems their structures had a character of long duration, at the same time these summed
up systemic formations were made up from fng. units of lower sublevels in accordance with
their mainly physical features with the accumulation simultaneously of a big quantity of
energy. The desintegration of such systems occurred after a long period of time, had a one
time irregular character and served only for purposes of the general reconstruction of
a macrosystem as a whole. Later, in the molecular organisational level, the order of
composing of systemic formations besides the physical became regulated also by the chemical
features of the fng. units entering into them, while with the growth of the systemic
organisation less and less summed up energy was being accumulated (though per one fng.
unit of each subsequent level the accumulation of energy was increasing considerably),
and the compounds themselves had the character of shorter and shorter duration. In the
over molecular systems, that were having more and more organic features, the drawing
up of information about algorithms of formation and functioning became effected by fnl.
subsystems, theoretically named nucleotides later.
So, in the process of the Evolution of Matter along the
organisational level H in some areas of the surface of the planet the Earth from
a certain moment of Time high-molecular material formations, capable of carrying out
different functional loads of the new spectrum, started appearing. They were including
in the structures of their subsystems the following organic chemical compounds: proteins,
fats, carbohydrates, nucleinous acids and other low-molecular organic substances. Besides,
also inorganic substances, the cheif of which was water, were entering into them. As the
actual point of the Evolution of Matter was advancing along the ordinate of time,
the number of new systemic formations was growing, keeping a certain balance, and their
systemic structure was improving. The systems of the level H were not separated
organisationally from the foregoing levels, but were including their systemic formations
integrally as fng. units in their fnl. cells. Due to the fact that the spatial development
of the systems of the level H was limited not only by the area of the Earth's
surface, but also by other factors of physical and chemical character as well (such as
the quantity of the received radiant energy of the Sun, which varies unlike in different
areas of the Earth's surface; the availability at a given place of a required spectrum
of systemic formations of the foregoing levels, etc.), there was always a state, at which
. Owing to this the
Evolution of Matter had to be realised practically only through the motion along the
coordinate of quality(
width="72" border="0">) , as the result of which the improvement of systems of the
organisational level H continued to have a relatively accelerated character. As
the outcome of this process was the appearance of a huge quantity of various in form and
by functional significance, but of the same type by systemic structure formations, which
in the modern understanding we unify in a single notion - the organic cell.
As it is known, different cells have the similarity not only
in structure, but also in chemical composition as well, that indicates, in fact, that
their origin was subordinated to the common laws of the Evolution of Matter. The average
content of chemical elements in cells is the following (in percentage):
Carbohydrates, fats and lipoids are attributed to the simplest
structural intracellular formations. Fnl. cells of their structures are being filled in
mainly by atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The function of carbohydrates is
the most simple. Dissociating to CO2 and water, with emitting from each gram
4.2 large calories of energy, they supply with the essential mass of these fng. units
appropriate fnl. cells of the structure of cells.
The role of fatty compounds is more complicated. They add
to cells hydrophobias (waterproof) characteristics, and are heat-resistors. In the case of
necessity, they become, like carbohydrates, a source of accumulated energy, decomposing up
to CO2 and H2O. The dissociating of 1 gram gives 9.3 large calories.
Proteins are some more complex structural formations.
Besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in fnl. cells of their structures there are also
atoms of nitrogen, sulphur and other substances. Proteins are macromolecules combining
tens, hundreds of thousands of atoms. (So, if the molecular mass of benzol is equal 78,
then of protein of eggs is36 000 , of protein of muscles -
1 500 000 , etc.)
The systemic organisation of proteins has its peculiarities.
Atoms entering into them fill in the fnl. cells destined for them not one by one, but by
the whole aminoacidic blocks, having a stable character of intrasystemic links. There are
altogether 20 of such fng. units - blocks. All of them have different systemic structures
and carry out different functions. Therefore the formation of proteins has a stage by
stage character.
At first aminoacids are being formed, which by means of peptidase
links are connected into proteinous chains with the giving off of water. Each proteinous
chain has on average of up to 200 - 300 aminoacidic blocks in different combinations. It
is enough to substitute in a chain one type of aminoacids for another one, as the entire
structure of a given protein, and with it its functional features as well are changing.
The structure of a proteinous chain of aminoacidic blocks has the form of a globule,
that adds to long chains of protein a compact appearance and mobility during spatial
displacements. In the packing of a polypeptidase chain there is nothing accidental or
chaotic, each protein has the definite, always constant character of packing. In other
words, the structure of every protein has a strictly definite spatial location of its
fnl. cells, which are being filled in by fng. units - aminoacidic blocks strictly
corresponding to them. At the same time each structure of protein, being a fng. unit in
a system of a higher order and occupying in it a fnl. cell corresponding to it, carries
out there its own function, characteristic only of it. As a rule, proteinous structures
are the most active reagents of chemical reactions, continually going inside cells, and
therefore their most important role is being catalysts of these reactions. Almost every
chemical reaction in cells is being catalysed by its own particular protein-ferment, the
catalytic activity of which is defined by a small part - its active centre (a combination
of aminoacidic radicals). The structure of a ferment's active centre and the structure
of a substratum precisely correspond to each other. They fit to each other as a key to
its lock. Because of the availability of a structural conformity between the active centre
of a ferment and substratum they can tightly approach each other, which actually provides
the possibility of a reaction between them.
To other important intracellular formations we should attribute
nucleinous acids: deoxyribonucleic - DNA and ribonucleic - RNA. Their main function
is to ensure the process of the synthesis of the cells' proteins. The length of a DNA's
molecule is a hundred and thousand times as big as the biggest proteinous molecule and can
reach several tens and hundreds of micrometers, while the length of the biggest proteinous
molecule does not exceed 0.1 mcm. The width of a DNA's double spiral is only 20
. The molecular
mass is tens and even hundreds of millions. Every DNA's chain is a polymer, monomers of
which are molecules of four types of nucleotides. In other words, DNA is a polynucleotide,
in the chain of which in a strictly definite order (and always constant for every DNA)
nucleotides are following, thus being fng. units in the structure of DNA's fnl. cells.
Therefore, if though in one of fnl. cells a different fng. unit - nucleotide is placed,
fnl. characteristics of the entire structure would change. In every DNA's chain (an
average molecular weight of 10 million) there are up to 30 thousand nucleotides (the
molecular weight of each being 345), owing to that the number of isomers (at 4 types
of nucleotides) is very great.
Because of the principle of complementarity as the basis of the
formation of a DNA's double spiral, a DNA's molecule is capable of redoubling. During this
process the two chains are separating, forming at the same time two double chains of fnl.
cells, only one row of which is filled in by fng. units, and the other one becomes free.
At the next stage dissociated nucleotides from the system's surroundings fill in free
fnl. cells which correspond to them in both spirals. As a result of the reduplication
in place of one molecule of DNA, two molecules originate of quite the same nucleotides'
composition, as the original one. One chain in each molecule of DNA originated anew is
left from the original molecule, the other one is being synthesised newly. In such a way,
together with the structure, the passing of fnl. characteristics of DNA from a motherly
cell to a daughter's one is occurring.
Graphically it looks like this:
1) the transport one (they are transporting
aminoacidic blocks to locations of the synthesis of proteins);
2) the informational one (they are transferring
the information about the structure of proteins);
3) the ribosomal one.
One more very important nucleotide in the structure of living
cells is adenosinthreephosphorous acid - ATPHA, the content of which in cells varies from
0.04 to 0.2 - 0.5%. Its peculiarity consists in the fact, that during a chipping off of
one molecule of phosphorous acid, ATPHA turns into ADP (adenosindiphosphorous acid) with
the emitting of 40 kilo joules of energy from 1 gr.-molecule.
All the above mentioned organic substances are complex in
their structure and in systemic organisation formations, but they in their also turn
enter as fng. units into fnl. subsystems of the cell's integrated system. To the
cell's basic subsystems the following ones are attributed:
The outward membrane of the cell. It is
regulating the entering of ions and molecules into the cell's structure and their leaving
it into the system's surroundings. Such an exchange of molecules and ions, that is of
different fng. units, between the cell's system and its surroundings is going continually.
One can distinguish the phagocyting, the taking up by the membrane of large particles of
a substance, and the pinocyting, the absorbing of water and water solutions. Through the
outward membrane the products of the cell's vital activity leave it, that is fng. units
having functioned in the cell's subsystems.
The cytoplasm. It is the internal semi-liquid
habitat of the cell, in the systemic volume of which the cell's internal structure is
expanded, that is its core, all organoids (or organelles), inclusions and vacuoles. The
cytoplasm consists of water with salts and various organic substances dissolved, among
which proteins predominate. The cytoplasm's structure consists of fng. units that are not
connected toughly but are moving freely along its entire volume. The fng. units filling
them in are transferred, when it is necessary, from them into the fnl. cells of organoids.
Therefore the cytoplasm's main functions are accumulative and transporting.
The endoplasmatic net. This is the cell's
organoid, constituting a complex system of canals and cavities, piercing the entire
cytoplasm of the cell. On membranes of the smooth endoplasmatic net the synthesis of
fats and carbohydrates takes place, which are being accumulated in accumulative fnl.
cells of its canals and cavities and then are being transported to different organoids
of the cell, where they occupy as fng. units appropriate fnl. cells of their structures.
On the membranes of canals and cavities there is also a great number of small rounded
bodies - ribosomes.
Each ribosome consists of two small particles, into the
composition of which proteins and RNA enter. Every cell has several thousand ribosomes
each. All proteins, entering into the composition of a given cell, are being synthesised
on ribosomes by means of the assembling of proteinous molecules from aminoacids, being
in the cytoplasm. The synthesis of proteins is a complex process of the filling in
with aminoacidic blocks of appropriate fnl. cells of their structures, which is being
accomplished simultaneously by a group of several tens of ribosomes, or by a polyribosome.
Synthesised proteins are being accumulated at first in the canals and cavities of the
granulated endoplasmatic net, and then are being transported towards those subsystems
of the cell, where fnl. cells destined for them are located. The endoplasmatic net
and polyribosomes constitute a single mechanism of biosynthesis, accumulation and
transportation of proteins.
The mitochondrias. This is an organoid,
the main function of which consists in the synthesis of ATPHA, representing a universal
source of energy, which is essential for the accomplishment of chemical processes
continually taking place inside the cell. The number of mitochondrias in the cell varies
from several to hundreds of thousands. Inside mitochondrias there are ribosomes and
nucleinous acids, and also a great quantity of various ferments. Synthesised ATPHA is
filling in transport fnl. cells of the cytoplasm and gets going towards the core and
organoids of the cell.
The plastids. They are organoids of
vegetable cells. They exist in several types. With the assistance of one of them,
chloroplasts, because of a pigment (chlorophyll) entering into their composition,
the cells of plants are capable of using the light energy of the Sun to synthesise
organic substances (carbohydrates) from inorganic ones. This process, as it is known,
has the name of photosynthesis.
The Golgy's complex. This is an organoid
of all vegetable and animal cells, in which the accumulation of proteins, fats and
carbohydrates takes place with their subsequent transportation to appropriate fnl.
cells both inside and outside the cell.
The lithesomes. This is an organoid, being
in all cells, that consists from a complex of ferments capable of breaking up proteins,
fats and carbohydrates. This is the main function of lithesomes. In every cell there are
tens of lithesomes, participating in the breaking up of already having functioned or
accumulative systemic formations as well as of those ones that get into the cell from
without by means of the phagocyting and pinocyting. As a result of breaking up fng. units
leave fnl. cells of being broken up structures, are being accumulated in fnl. cells of
accumulative systems of a given cell, and then are being transported to fnl. cells of its
new systemic formations. Having been broken up with the assistance of lithesomes, having
functioned the cell's structures are moved away out of its bounds. The formation of new
lithesomes takes place in the cell continually. The ferments, which are functioning in
lithesomes, as any other proteins are being synthesised on ribosomes of the cytoplasm.
Then these ferments get through the canals of the endoplasmatic net to a Golgy's complex,
in cavities and tubes of which fnl. cells of lithesomes' structures are being formed.
After being formed the lithesomes come off from tubes' ends and get into cytoplasm.
The cell's centre. This is an organoid,
which is located in one of parts of the concentrated cytoplasm. Two centrioles are
in it, which play an important role during the cell-fission.
The cell's structure has other organoids as well: flagellums,
cilias, etc., and also the cell's inclusions (carbohydrates, fats and proteins).
At the same time the cells, being themselves very complex
systemic formations, in their turn are fng. units, filling in fnl. cells of hypersystems
of the following levels of the organisation of Matter. Owing to this in the systemic
organisation of cells a mechanism is envisaged which allows within a relatively short
period of time the creation of systemic formations analogous to them. As a result the
cell's cycle includes two periods:
1) The cell-fission (a mitosis),
in the process of which two daughter cells are being created;
2) The period between two cell-fissions -
the interphase - the actual duration of a cell's functioning.
The cell's core plays an important role in the
cell-fission, being in every cell and constituting a complex fnl. subsystem. The core
has the core's membrane, through which proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleinous acids,
water and various ions get into and out of it. Having entered a core, they are filling
in fnl. cells of the core's juice as well as of nucleoluses and chromatin. In nucleoluses
the synthesis of RNA is taking place, but they themselves are being formed only in the
interphase. The chromatin constitutes a uniform substance, serving as an accumulative
subsystem, with the help of which the formation of chromosomes is being carried
out during the core-fission.
The chromosomes are the main mechanism of the cell, where so
named inherited information, which includes a chemical recording of the sequence of fnl.
cells in proteins' structures of a given cell, is being accumulated, kept and given
out. The above said information is being kept in DNA's molecules, which are situated
in chromosomes. Thus, DNA's molecules constitute a chemical recording of structures of
all the variety of proteins. On the lengthy thread of a DNA's molecule a recording of
information about the sequence of fnl. cells of various proteins' structures is following
one after another. A part of DNA, having the information about the structure of a protein,
it is usual to name a gene. A DNA's molecule constitutes a collection of several
hundreds or thousands of genes. The diameter of chromosomes is not big and amounts on
average to 140, their
length, repeating the length of DNA's molecules, can be more than 1 mm. In the middle of
the interphase period the synthesis of DNA occurs, as a result of which a chromosome is
doubling.
The most important function of chromosomes is to be a repository
of the recordings of structures and accordingly of algorithmic abilities of the cell's fnl.
subsystems with the assistance of the mechanism of formation of proteinous fng. units.
In the course of time as functions of this or that type of organic systems are
increasing, the recording in chromosomes is changing and perfecting itself, meeting
the requirements of laws of the fnl. development of Matter. In a direct dependence
on a molecular recording of chromosomes' DNA through the mechanism of synthesising of
proteinous molecules, all the processes of vital activity of cells are occurring. The
number of chromosomes is constant for each species of animals and plants, that is each
cell of any organism which belongs to the same species contains an absolutely definite
number of chromosomes (rye - 14, man - 46, hen - 78, etc.). The chromosomes' composition,
which the core of a cell contains, always has twin chromosomes. So 46 chromosomes of
a man form 23 pairs, in each of them two identical chromosomes are united. Chromosomes
of different pairs differ from each other in form and place of location. As a result of
mitosis two daughter cells are being created, which by structure are fully similar to a
mother one. Each of them has exactly the same chromosomes and the same number of them as
the mother cell. In this way a complete communication of all the inherited information
to each of the daughter cores is provided. The core and all the organoids of a cell's
cytoplasm are interacting as a single system.
All cells have a similar type of the structure: the core,
mitochondrias, the Golgy's complex, the endoplasmatic net, ribosomes and other organoids.
However, before becoming such a perfect system, which it is nowadays, the cell has passed
a long way through the evolution, marked by appropriate spaces on ordinates of t and
ft of the tensor of the Evolution of Matter. In the beginning it was a part
of non-cellular organisms unknown to us, then of imperfect unicellular and multi-cellular
organisms, including bacteria and blue-green algae, and finally it reached the perfection
of a complex cellular mechanism, characteristic of the representatives of the vegetable
and animal world contemporary with us. Because of the motion of Matter along the ordinate
of quality during the process of the evolution of the cell a great variety of its
types was originated, each of them was provided with strictly definite fnl. features and
correspond to the definite point on this ordinate.
At the same time from a certain moment this process started
going simultaneously with the beginning of the development of fnl. systems of a higher
organisational level, fnl. cells of which the cells began to fill in as fng. units. As
a result the cell turned into a complex systemic formation, to keep up fnl. features of
which complex chemical processes are taking place continually inside and outside it. The
permanency of processes is connected with the fact that the time of the functioning of
fng. units with the growth of their molecular weight does not coincide more and more with
the time of the existence of fnl. cells of structures, that they fill in, as in a limited
space of displacement of fng. units the time of their existence is in direct dependence
on their fnl. mass. Besides, the permanency of processes is caused by the fact that most
chemical reactions taking place in a cell have an irreversible character. For all these
reactions the greatest organisation and order are characteristic: each reaction is going
at a strictly definite place at a strictly definite time in a strictly definite sequence.
Molecules of ferments are located on membranes of mitochondrias and of the endoplasmatic
net in the order in which reactions are going.
In a cell there are about one thousand ferments, with the
assistance of which two types of reactions are going: of synthesis and of
desintegration. As the main (creating) type of reactions should be considered
reactions of synthesis, in the process of which complex molecular compounds are being
formed, as fng. units filling in fnl. cells of the cell's subsystemic structures. So,
for replacement of each functioned out molecule of protein, that has left this or that
fnl. cell, a new molecule of protein fills the vacated place, by structure and chemical
composition and accordingly by its fnl. features fully identical to the previous fng.
unit. It means, that a newly synthesised fng. unit is able (or should be able) to take
an identical part in any algorithms, characteristic for a given fnl. cell.
The synthesis of fng. units is carried out with the assistance
of the functioning of the cell's special subsystems on the basis of the coded gene
recording of DNA. Fluctuatal deviations, which happen during this, in case of their
positive effect are being recorded by the reverse connection in a gene recording and
serve to the purposes of a further perfection of a given systemic structure. In the
event of a negative effect from a newly synthesised fng. unit the implementation of
a part of fnl. algorithms is being violated and in case the system is not able to
eliminate that, the unproper functioning of an appropriate subsystem can result in the
increased much more the power of their catalytic influence by comparison with less
organised catalysts, which reflected on the shortening of the time of the duration of
reactions, that is of reconstructing of the structure-principal. So, for example, ions
of ferrum decompose peroxide hydrogen to oxygen and water. An appropriate ferment
(cattalos), constituting a combination of a ferro-porphyric complex with a specific
protein, possesses the same effect. But it accomplishes this reaction ten billion times
faster, than inorganic ferrum. In other words, 1 mg of ferrum, included in a fermentous
complex, by its catalytic activity can substitute 10 tons of inorganic ferrum. Thus,
ferments are relatively composite systemic formations of the level H, the main
function of which is to provide adjustments in a certain diapason of time of structural
reconstructing of hypersystems, into which they are included, in accordance with the
injunctions of becoming more complicated algorithms of hyperpolyfunctioning, that
is correlations of systemic structures depending on modifications of their fnl.
characteristics. Therefore even minor alterations in the structural construction of
a fermentous complex, a transposition of some radicals in the prosthetic group or a
breach of the architectonics of the proteinous component, initiate the abrupt lowering
of catalytic activity of a given ferment. Hence, in the systemic organisation of ferments
accordance between the structural construction of fnl. cells and the function of an entire
given system is also being confirmed, which is natural for all stages and levels of the
cascadous Evolution of Matter in general.
The spatial configuration of proteinous globules also determines
by itself the second peculiarity of ferments - the high specificity of their action, that
is monofunctioning. In other words, each ferment is capable of catalysing only its own,
strictly definite reaction. Therefore, if there is some organic substance capable of
several chemical combinations, then in the presence of this or that ferment it would
react quickly only in one strictly definite direction, carrying out by that an appropriate
algorithm of a given system.
Finally, the specific structure of proteins also determines by
itself the third characteristic for ferments feature - their exclusive sensitivity to
different kinds of influences. So, under certain physical or chemical influences of the
most different kind (even then, when these influences do not affect peptidase and other
covalent links of a proteinous molecule), the specific spatial architectonics of a globule
may be changed and even broken, and its being in an ordered structural configuration
can be irreversibly disrupted. In this case peptidase chains take a disorderly spatial
disposition and protein from globular turns into a feebler state - the so named
denaturalisation of proteins occurs, during which they lose several of those of their
specific biologically important characteristics, caused by the definite architectonics
of each type of proteinous molecule. At the same time fermentous characteristics of
proteins vanish completely. However, during more gentle influences the catalytic activity
of a fermentous complex may be kept till a certain extent, undergoing only some
quantitative changes. Therefore any, even rather insignificant alterations of physical
or chemical conditions in the surroundings, where a given fermentous reaction is taking
place, are always reflected in the modification of its character and velocity. All these
features of proteins constituted the foundation of the qualitative Evolution of Matter
along the organisational level H, in the systems of which more and more extending
fnl. differentiation of fng. units and structural integration of fnl. cells were taking
place.
Each fng. unit, having got into a fnl. cell corresponding to
it, is functioning within it for a certain period of time determined by the algorithms,
afterwards it leaves it, giving up the place to a new fng. unit with the same fnl.
characteristics. Having left one fnl. cell, the fng. unit is moving into another,
dictated to it by algorithms, cell, etc. This process is going on continuously,
periodically resuming and reiterating, which is why the impression of moving fng. units
- substances through the systemic structure of each given formation is given, during
which the system absorbs fng. units (or their complexes), certain time utilises them
inside itself and then puts out beyond its limits. This perpetual motion is being
regulated and tuned by an aggregate of appropriate algorithms of every system, while
reactions constantly going in the system attach to it peculiar 'liveliness'. Due to this,
during so called metabolism very plain and sometimes monotonous chemical reactions of
oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, phosphorolysis, the breaking of carbonic links, etc.,
(which can be reproduced also outside the system of the organism) are organised in a
certain way and matched in time by appropriate algorithms as well as subordinated to the
functional interests of their system as the integrated unified whole. These reactions
are taking place in systems of the level H not occasionally, not chaotically, but
according to a strictly definite mutual sequence, fixed by algorithms. That colossal
variety of organic compounds, which by nowadays is represented in the world of living
creatures, is caused not by the diversity and complexity of separate individual reactions,
but by the diversity of their combinations, and the modification of that sequence, in
which they are going on in any cell of a living organism in this or that phase of its
development. In other words, the evolution of systems of the present level of the
organisation of Matter turned out to be even more dependent on the appearance of new
algorithms, the perfection of structures of fnl. cells and the timely filling of them
in with appropriate fng. units. The sequence of chemical reactions, caused by appropriate
algorithms, is at the basis of both the synthesis and desintegration of alive substance,
at the basis of such vital phenomena as fermentation, breathing, photosynthesis, etc.
Molecules of sugar and oxygen, carbonic acid and water are in this case only initial and
final links in the long chain of chemical transformations, while being originated as a
result of one reaction an intermediate substance (fng. complex) immediately enters into
the next strictly definite, for a given life process, reaction. If one changes this
sequence, eliminates or substitutes though any one link in the chain of transformations,
pre-determined by a given algorithm, the entire process as a whole changes absolutely or
is even completely broken.
At the basis of the mechanism of these phenomena there is
a tight synchronisation of the velocities of separate chemical reactions, constituting
displacements of fng. units of lower sublevels from some fnl. cells to other ones. Any
organic substance can react in very many directions, that is it has rather big and various
possibilities, however their realisation can go with quite different velocities depending
on the totality of those conditions, in which a given reaction is taking place. It is
clear, that if in given conditions some reaction is going rather fast, but all the other
potentially possible reactions are going relatively slowly, then the practical importance
of these latter reactions in the whole process of metabolism proves to be quite
insignificant. In other words, various ways of chemical transformations are opened before
every organic substance of protoplasm, but practically each getting there from the milieu
compound or every originating intermediate product would change during metabolism only in
that direction in which they are reacting with the highest velocity. All the other slowly
going reactions just have no time during the same period to be realised in any significant
quantity.
Entering the process of the metabolism as reagents, fng. units
- substratum are filling in with themselves fnl. cells destined strictly for them in
the structure of a given system, in which at a certain moment of time according to the
injunction of the algorithms they are entering into a complex compound with appropriate
protein-ferment. Each such complex is an unstable formation, but reliable enough to
accomplish some essential function. After having functioned, it is undergoing very
quickly a further transformation, while the substratum is changing in an appropriate
direction, that is fng. units composing it go over into other fnl. cells, and the ferment
regenerates and can enter again into a complex with a new portion of the substratum for
keeping up the possibility of the fulfilment of an essential function by a given systemic
formation. Therefore, in order that any fng. unit could really participate in metabolism
in systems of the level H, it should come into an interaction with protein, form
with it a certain complex compound and only in this way realise its fnl. features. Owing
to this, the direction in which any organic compound is changing during metabolism,
depends not only on the individual molecular structure of composing fng. units and
determining its fnl. features, but also on the fnl. cell, to which each fng. unit of the
compound gets in and where it should form together with other fng. units - proteins a fnl.
complex with new fnl. features, capable of fulfilling this or that new function, obeying
the algorithms prevailing in a given system.
Because of the extremely fine specificity of fermentous proteins,
each of them having strictly individual fnl. features, they can only get in strictly
definite fnl. cells and, due to this, are capable of forming fnl. complexes only with
definite fng. units of the previous sublevels as well as catalysing only certain individual
reactions. Therefore, during the implementation of some life process, and moreover of the
entire metabolism as a whole, thousands of individual proteins-ferments are participating,
at the same time each of them is able to catalyse specifically only one individual
reaction, and only in the aggregate, in a certain combination of their activity they
create that natural order of phenomena, which is at the basis of the process of metabolism.
So, the metabolism, going constantly in systems of any living organism, is the most
complex ball of chemical transformations of interchange, where thousands of individual
reactions, regulated by a given aggregate of algorithms, are being united into a commonly
acting mechanism, and the essence of each reaction is to move this or that fng. unit
from one fnl. cell of the structure of a system to another one, while the moments of
transferences of fng. units along the cells are strictly coordinated all over the system,
alternated in a strictly definite order and with strictly signified fng. units and fnl.
cells participating in every transference. At the same time, the outer systemic and around
subsystemic milieu or, in other words, the systemic surroundings by units of foregoing
sublevels of Matter, are playing an important part in every reaction of the metabolism.
So, any rise or drop of the temperature, any alteration of the acid milieu, of the
oxidising potential or of the osmotic pressure, changes the ratio between the velocities
of individual fermentous reactions which are taking place in the system of a given living
organism, and therefore is changing their interconnection in time, that in its turn is
reflecting in the alterations of periods of functioning of these or those fng. units. Thus,
the systemic organisation of an alive substance is indissolubly linked with the around
systemic organisation of the milieu and constitutes with it the united whole. Besides,
the spatial organisation of fnl. cells in the structure of the alive substance has as
well a very big influence on the order and direction of fermentous reactions basic for
interchange. Hence, many tens and hundreds of thousands of chemical reactions, continually
going in every living organism, are not only strictly coordinated between themselves in
time by an innumerable number of times worked through algorithms, are not only combined
in a unified order of the entire structural organisation of its system and of the around
systemic milieu surrounding it, but the whole of this order itself is directed at keeping
up within a certain period of time hyperfunctional features of the whole given system
as a fng. unit of a higher level. Acquired anew meanwhile, fnl. features of proteinous
substances can become clear only after the studying of the peculiarities of their
functioning in an organism as fng. units of systems of a higher organisational level
of Matter.
In connection with the fact that from the moment the qualitative
forms of Matter enter into the so called 'live' phase of Evolution, the character of
the organisation of systems became more complicated, besides the organising principles,
characteristic for systems of the foregoing levels, such as:
1) the availability of strictly regulated
quantity of fnl. cells, unified into a single structure of links,
and appropriate to them,
of formation, functioning and desintegration,
of the functioning of a system
for the organisational level H additional systems' forming factors became
required. Due to a bigger complicity of its fnl. systems the extension of their apparently
autonomous nature was going on, which practically constitutes only a bigger gap in levels
of the organisation of a system itself and of the around systemic milieu and which gave
ground to designate some of their features by the attaching of the half-word 'self':
self-renewal, self-adjustment, self-power-supplying and almost self-destruction. The
beginning of the development of appropriate subsystems in the general structure of an
organism, responsible for providing this or that specific function, became the foundation
of this autonomy. A bigger and bigger stratification of systems to subsystems, going
because of a further differentiation of functions, made the structure of systems more
complicated and required yet more precise intercoordination of its integrated components.
Therefore an aggregate of algorithms of every system was increasing gradually in quantity,
its qualitative composition was becoming better and better.
Everybody knows what an algorithm is. It is the order,
strictly regulated in time and space, of the consecutive transferences of fng. units from
one fnl. cell of the structure of a given level into another one. This order is compulsory
for systems of any organisational level, and is pre-determined for each of their fng.
units. Everything around us is subordinated to some algorithms. There are a lot of them
- from the most simple to the incredibly complicated ones. Among ordinary everyday
algorithms we can mention the algorithms of cooking (for example, of brewing tea, baking
cakes, etc.), of manufacturing tables or chairs, the cultivating of potatoes plants, etc.
Among super complicated ones we can indicate, for example, the algorithm of manufacturing
an aircraft carrier. Therefore in an ordinary cooking book algorithms of cooking are
enumerated, in sheet music - algorithms of the reproduction of musical works, and in
technological plans of the construction of houses or cars, of building roads - algorithms
of their construction. All the algorithms mentioned by us were drawn up by man during his
practical activity. But who was drawing up the algorithms for creating fnl. systems of
pre-organic and organic organisation of Matter? As already the algorithms of creation of
an atom of hydrogen or a molecule of aminoacid are rather not simple. Certainly, nobody
was inventing them. They were being drawn up by themselves, obeying the essential
necessity, emitting from the action of the laws of the Evolution of Matter, and first
of all, of its motion in the category of quality
).As systemic structures were becoming more complicated already
in the first period of the organisation of living forms of Matter, the duration
of functioning of which is based, as it is known, on the principle of continual
substitution in them of blocks of fng. units, at a certain moment of the
organisational development a mechanism became required, that could provide the formation
of such blocks within a comparatively short time in order to replace by them the blocks
ending functioning in the fnl. cells without breaking fnl. features of an entire given
system as a whole. For this purpose in systems a special subsystem was being singled out
more and more, that was drawing up the algorithms of the formation of this or that block,
its spatial location in the entire structure and a temporal sequence of transferences of
fng. units of a given level from some fnl. cells to others. As it is known, in pre-organic
systems their structures had a character of long duration, at the same time these summed
up systemic formations were made up from fng. units of lower sublevels in accordance with
their mainly physical features with the accumulation simultaneously of a big quantity of
energy. The desintegration of such systems occurred after a long period of time, had a one
time irregular character and served only for purposes of the general reconstruction of
a macrosystem as a whole. Later, in the molecular organisational level, the order of
composing of systemic formations besides the physical became regulated also by the chemical
features of the fng. units entering into them, while with the growth of the systemic
organisation less and less summed up energy was being accumulated (though per one fng.
unit of each subsequent level the accumulation of energy was increasing considerably),
and the compounds themselves had the character of shorter and shorter duration. In the
over molecular systems, that were having more and more organic features, the drawing
up of information about algorithms of formation and functioning became effected by fnl.
subsystems, theoretically named nucleotides later.
So, in the process of the Evolution of Matter along the
organisational level H in some areas of the surface of the planet the Earth from
a certain moment of Time high-molecular material formations, capable of carrying out
different functional loads of the new spectrum, started appearing. They were including
in the structures of their subsystems the following organic chemical compounds: proteins,
fats, carbohydrates, nucleinous acids and other low-molecular organic substances. Besides,
also inorganic substances, the cheif of which was water, were entering into them. As the
actual point of the Evolution of Matter was advancing along the ordinate of time,
the number of new systemic formations was growing, keeping a certain balance, and their
systemic structure was improving. The systems of the level H were not separated
organisationally from the foregoing levels, but were including their systemic formations
integrally as fng. units in their fnl. cells. Due to the fact that the spatial development
of the systems of the level H was limited not only by the area of the Earth's
surface, but also by other factors of physical and chemical character as well (such as
the quantity of the received radiant energy of the Sun, which varies unlike in different
areas of the Earth's surface; the availability at a given place of a required spectrum
of systemic formations of the foregoing levels, etc.), there was always a state, at which
. Owing to this theEvolution of Matter had to be realised practically only through the motion along the
coordinate of quality
width="72" border="0">)organisational level H continued to have a relatively accelerated character. As
the outcome of this process was the appearance of a huge quantity of various in form and
by functional significance, but of the same type by systemic structure formations, which
in the modern understanding we unify in a single notion - the organic cell.
As it is known, different cells have the similarity not only
in structure, but also in chemical composition as well, that indicates, in fact, that
their origin was subordinated to the common laws of the Evolution of Matter. The average
content of chemical elements in cells is the following (in percentage):
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From 104 elements of Mendeleev's periodical system more than
60 are found in cells. Atoms of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen fill in 98% of fnl.
cells of cellular subsystems. 1.9% are left to atoms of potassium, sulphur, phosphorus,
chlorine, magnesium, sodium, calcium and ferrum. Less than 0.1% of fnl. cells are occupied
by other substances (micro elements). Various combinations of the said elements give
several types of intracellular subsystemic formations, which every cell includes into
its fnl. cells as fng. units in the following proportions (in percentage):
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All the above stated substances, being themselves very complex
in respect to the structure, are not piled up in a cell together in some chaotic disorder,
but as fng. units are filling in fnl. cells located in a strictly definite order and
destined for each of them in a uniform structure. While functioning they accomplish their
precisely defined micromotions inside a microvolume of a cell's space, regulated by
appropriate intracellular algorithms, at the same time there is an undoubted connection
of these motions in space with both the absolute and relative courses of time.
Each substance of a cell as a fng. unit carries out a strictly definite functional load
and has its own periods of functioning, regulated by appropriate algorithms. All their
various combinations constitute the unified, finely adjusted cellular mechanism.
Carbohydrates, fats and lipoids are attributed to the simplest
structural intracellular formations. Fnl. cells of their structures are being filled in
mainly by atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The function of carbohydrates is
the most simple. Dissociating to CO2 and water, with emitting from each gram
4.2 large calories of energy, they supply with the essential mass of these fng. units
appropriate fnl. cells of the structure of cells.
The role of fatty compounds is more complicated. They add
to cells hydrophobias (waterproof) characteristics, and are heat-resistors. In the case of
necessity, they become, like carbohydrates, a source of accumulated energy, decomposing up
to CO2 and H2O. The dissociating of 1 gram gives 9.3 large calories.
Proteins are some more complex structural formations.
Besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in fnl. cells of their structures there are also
atoms of nitrogen, sulphur and other substances. Proteins are macromolecules combining
tens, hundreds of thousands of atoms. (So, if the molecular mass of benzol is equal 78,
then of protein of eggs is
The systemic organisation of proteins has its peculiarities.
Atoms entering into them fill in the fnl. cells destined for them not one by one, but by
the whole aminoacidic blocks, having a stable character of intrasystemic links. There are
altogether 20 of such fng. units - blocks. All of them have different systemic structures
and carry out different functions. Therefore the formation of proteins has a stage by
stage character.
At first aminoacids are being formed, which by means of peptidase
links are connected into proteinous chains with the giving off of water. Each proteinous
chain has on average of up to 200 - 300 aminoacidic blocks in different combinations. It
is enough to substitute in a chain one type of aminoacids for another one, as the entire
structure of a given protein, and with it its functional features as well are changing.
The structure of a proteinous chain of aminoacidic blocks has the form of a globule,
that adds to long chains of protein a compact appearance and mobility during spatial
displacements. In the packing of a polypeptidase chain there is nothing accidental or
chaotic, each protein has the definite, always constant character of packing. In other
words, the structure of every protein has a strictly definite spatial location of its
fnl. cells, which are being filled in by fng. units - aminoacidic blocks strictly
corresponding to them. At the same time each structure of protein, being a fng. unit in
a system of a higher order and occupying in it a fnl. cell corresponding to it, carries
out there its own function, characteristic only of it. As a rule, proteinous structures
are the most active reagents of chemical reactions, continually going inside cells, and
therefore their most important role is being catalysts of these reactions. Almost every
chemical reaction in cells is being catalysed by its own particular protein-ferment, the
catalytic activity of which is defined by a small part - its active centre (a combination
of aminoacidic radicals). The structure of a ferment's active centre and the structure
of a substratum precisely correspond to each other. They fit to each other as a key to
its lock. Because of the availability of a structural conformity between the active centre
of a ferment and substratum they can tightly approach each other, which actually provides
the possibility of a reaction between them.
To other important intracellular formations we should attribute
nucleinous acids: deoxyribonucleic - DNA and ribonucleic - RNA. Their main function
is to ensure the process of the synthesis of the cells' proteins. The length of a DNA's
molecule is a hundred and thousand times as big as the biggest proteinous molecule and can
reach several tens and hundreds of micrometers, while the length of the biggest proteinous
molecule does not exceed 0.1 mcm. The width of a DNA's double spiral is only 20
. The molecularmass is tens and even hundreds of millions. Every DNA's chain is a polymer, monomers of
which are molecules of four types of nucleotides. In other words, DNA is a polynucleotide,
in the chain of which in a strictly definite order (and always constant for every DNA)
nucleotides are following, thus being fng. units in the structure of DNA's fnl. cells.
Therefore, if though in one of fnl. cells a different fng. unit - nucleotide is placed,
fnl. characteristics of the entire structure would change. In every DNA's chain (an
average molecular weight of 10 million) there are up to 30 thousand nucleotides (the
molecular weight of each being 345), owing to that the number of isomers (at 4 types
of nucleotides) is very great.
Because of the principle of complementarity as the basis of the
formation of a DNA's double spiral, a DNA's molecule is capable of redoubling. During this
process the two chains are separating, forming at the same time two double chains of fnl.
cells, only one row of which is filled in by fng. units, and the other one becomes free.
At the next stage dissociated nucleotides from the system's surroundings fill in free
fnl. cells which correspond to them in both spirals. As a result of the reduplication
in place of one molecule of DNA, two molecules originate of quite the same nucleotides'
composition, as the original one. One chain in each molecule of DNA originated anew is
left from the original molecule, the other one is being synthesised newly. In such a way,
together with the structure, the passing of fnl. characteristics of DNA from a motherly
cell to a daughter's one is occurring.
Graphically it looks like this:
The molecules of RNA are also polymers as are the DNA's,
but in contradistinction to them they have one spiral of fnl. cells and not two. RNA
carry out several functions in cells including:
1) the transport one (they are transporting
aminoacidic blocks to locations of the synthesis of proteins);
the information about the structure of proteins);
One more very important nucleotide in the structure of living
cells is adenosinthreephosphorous acid - ATPHA, the content of which in cells varies from
0.04 to 0.2 - 0.5%. Its peculiarity consists in the fact, that during a chipping off of
one molecule of phosphorous acid, ATPHA turns into ADP (adenosindiphosphorous acid) with
the emitting of 40 kilo joules of energy from 1 gr.-molecule.
All the above mentioned organic substances are complex in
their structure and in systemic organisation formations, but they in their also turn
enter as fng. units into fnl. subsystems of the cell's integrated system. To the
cell's basic subsystems the following ones are attributed:
The outward membrane of the cell. It is
regulating the entering of ions and molecules into the cell's structure and their leaving
it into the system's surroundings. Such an exchange of molecules and ions, that is of
different fng. units, between the cell's system and its surroundings is going continually.
One can distinguish the phagocyting, the taking up by the membrane of large particles of
a substance, and the pinocyting, the absorbing of water and water solutions. Through the
outward membrane the products of the cell's vital activity leave it, that is fng. units
having functioned in the cell's subsystems.
The cytoplasm. It is the internal semi-liquid
habitat of the cell, in the systemic volume of which the cell's internal structure is
expanded, that is its core, all organoids (or organelles), inclusions and vacuoles. The
cytoplasm consists of water with salts and various organic substances dissolved, among
which proteins predominate. The cytoplasm's structure consists of fng. units that are not
connected toughly but are moving freely along its entire volume. The fng. units filling
them in are transferred, when it is necessary, from them into the fnl. cells of organoids.
Therefore the cytoplasm's main functions are accumulative and transporting.
The endoplasmatic net. This is the cell's
organoid, constituting a complex system of canals and cavities, piercing the entire
cytoplasm of the cell. On membranes of the smooth endoplasmatic net the synthesis of
fats and carbohydrates takes place, which are being accumulated in accumulative fnl.
cells of its canals and cavities and then are being transported to different organoids
of the cell, where they occupy as fng. units appropriate fnl. cells of their structures.
On the membranes of canals and cavities there is also a great number of small rounded
bodies - ribosomes.
Each ribosome consists of two small particles, into the
composition of which proteins and RNA enter. Every cell has several thousand ribosomes
each. All proteins, entering into the composition of a given cell, are being synthesised
on ribosomes by means of the assembling of proteinous molecules from aminoacids, being
in the cytoplasm. The synthesis of proteins is a complex process of the filling in
with aminoacidic blocks of appropriate fnl. cells of their structures, which is being
accomplished simultaneously by a group of several tens of ribosomes, or by a polyribosome.
Synthesised proteins are being accumulated at first in the canals and cavities of the
granulated endoplasmatic net, and then are being transported towards those subsystems
of the cell, where fnl. cells destined for them are located. The endoplasmatic net
and polyribosomes constitute a single mechanism of biosynthesis, accumulation and
transportation of proteins.
The mitochondrias. This is an organoid,
the main function of which consists in the synthesis of ATPHA, representing a universal
source of energy, which is essential for the accomplishment of chemical processes
continually taking place inside the cell. The number of mitochondrias in the cell varies
from several to hundreds of thousands. Inside mitochondrias there are ribosomes and
nucleinous acids, and also a great quantity of various ferments. Synthesised ATPHA is
filling in transport fnl. cells of the cytoplasm and gets going towards the core and
organoids of the cell.
The plastids. They are organoids of
vegetable cells. They exist in several types. With the assistance of one of them,
chloroplasts, because of a pigment (chlorophyll) entering into their composition,
the cells of plants are capable of using the light energy of the Sun to synthesise
organic substances (carbohydrates) from inorganic ones. This process, as it is known,
has the name of photosynthesis.
The Golgy's complex. This is an organoid
of all vegetable and animal cells, in which the accumulation of proteins, fats and
carbohydrates takes place with their subsequent transportation to appropriate fnl.
cells both inside and outside the cell.
The lithesomes. This is an organoid, being
in all cells, that consists from a complex of ferments capable of breaking up proteins,
fats and carbohydrates. This is the main function of lithesomes. In every cell there are
tens of lithesomes, participating in the breaking up of already having functioned or
accumulative systemic formations as well as of those ones that get into the cell from
without by means of the phagocyting and pinocyting. As a result of breaking up fng. units
leave fnl. cells of being broken up structures, are being accumulated in fnl. cells of
accumulative systems of a given cell, and then are being transported to fnl. cells of its
new systemic formations. Having been broken up with the assistance of lithesomes, having
functioned the cell's structures are moved away out of its bounds. The formation of new
lithesomes takes place in the cell continually. The ferments, which are functioning in
lithesomes, as any other proteins are being synthesised on ribosomes of the cytoplasm.
Then these ferments get through the canals of the endoplasmatic net to a Golgy's complex,
in cavities and tubes of which fnl. cells of lithesomes' structures are being formed.
After being formed the lithesomes come off from tubes' ends and get into cytoplasm.
The cell's centre. This is an organoid,
which is located in one of parts of the concentrated cytoplasm. Two centrioles are
in it, which play an important role during the cell-fission.
The cell's structure has other organoids as well: flagellums,
cilias, etc., and also the cell's inclusions (carbohydrates, fats and proteins).
At the same time the cells, being themselves very complex
systemic formations, in their turn are fng. units, filling in fnl. cells of hypersystems
of the following levels of the organisation of Matter. Owing to this in the systemic
organisation of cells a mechanism is envisaged which allows within a relatively short
period of time the creation of systemic formations analogous to them. As a result the
cell's cycle includes two periods:
1) The cell-fission (a mitosis),
in the process of which two daughter cells are being created;
the interphase - the actual duration of a cell's functioning.
The cell's core plays an important role in the
cell-fission, being in every cell and constituting a complex fnl. subsystem. The core
has the core's membrane, through which proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleinous acids,
water and various ions get into and out of it. Having entered a core, they are filling
in fnl. cells of the core's juice as well as of nucleoluses and chromatin. In nucleoluses
the synthesis of RNA is taking place, but they themselves are being formed only in the
interphase. The chromatin constitutes a uniform substance, serving as an accumulative
subsystem, with the help of which the formation of chromosomes is being carried
out during the core-fission.
The chromosomes are the main mechanism of the cell, where so
named inherited information, which includes a chemical recording of the sequence of fnl.
cells in proteins' structures of a given cell, is being accumulated, kept and given
out. The above said information is being kept in DNA's molecules, which are situated
in chromosomes. Thus, DNA's molecules constitute a chemical recording of structures of
all the variety of proteins. On the lengthy thread of a DNA's molecule a recording of
information about the sequence of fnl. cells of various proteins' structures is following
one after another. A part of DNA, having the information about the structure of a protein,
it is usual to name a gene. A DNA's molecule constitutes a collection of several
hundreds or thousands of genes. The diameter of chromosomes is not big and amounts on
average to 140
, theirlength, repeating the length of DNA's molecules, can be more than 1 mm. In the middle of
the interphase period the synthesis of DNA occurs, as a result of which a chromosome is
doubling.
The most important function of chromosomes is to be a repository
of the recordings of structures and accordingly of algorithmic abilities of the cell's fnl.
subsystems with the assistance of the mechanism of formation of proteinous fng. units.
In the course of time as functions of this or that type of organic systems are
increasing, the recording in chromosomes is changing and perfecting itself, meeting
the requirements of laws of the fnl. development of Matter. In a direct dependence
on a molecular recording of chromosomes' DNA through the mechanism of synthesising of
proteinous molecules, all the processes of vital activity of cells are occurring. The
number of chromosomes is constant for each species of animals and plants, that is each
cell of any organism which belongs to the same species contains an absolutely definite
number of chromosomes (rye - 14, man - 46, hen - 78, etc.). The chromosomes' composition,
which the core of a cell contains, always has twin chromosomes. So 46 chromosomes of
a man form 23 pairs, in each of them two identical chromosomes are united. Chromosomes
of different pairs differ from each other in form and place of location. As a result of
mitosis two daughter cells are being created, which by structure are fully similar to a
mother one. Each of them has exactly the same chromosomes and the same number of them as
the mother cell. In this way a complete communication of all the inherited information
to each of the daughter cores is provided. The core and all the organoids of a cell's
cytoplasm are interacting as a single system.
All cells have a similar type of the structure: the core,
mitochondrias, the Golgy's complex, the endoplasmatic net, ribosomes and other organoids.
However, before becoming such a perfect system, which it is nowadays, the cell has passed
a long way through the evolution, marked by appropriate spaces on ordinates of t and
ft of the tensor of the Evolution of Matter. In the beginning it was a part
of non-cellular organisms unknown to us, then of imperfect unicellular and multi-cellular
organisms, including bacteria and blue-green algae, and finally it reached the perfection
of a complex cellular mechanism, characteristic of the representatives of the vegetable
and animal world contemporary with us. Because of the motion of Matter along the ordinate
of quality during the process of the evolution of the cell a great variety of its
types was originated, each of them was provided with strictly definite fnl. features and
correspond to the definite point on this ordinate.
At the same time from a certain moment this process started
going simultaneously with the beginning of the development of fnl. systems of a higher
organisational level, fnl. cells of which the cells began to fill in as fng. units. As
a result the cell turned into a complex systemic formation, to keep up fnl. features of
which complex chemical processes are taking place continually inside and outside it. The
permanency of processes is connected with the fact that the time of the functioning of
fng. units with the growth of their molecular weight does not coincide more and more with
the time of the existence of fnl. cells of structures, that they fill in, as in a limited
space of displacement of fng. units the time of their existence is in direct dependence
on their fnl. mass. Besides, the permanency of processes is caused by the fact that most
chemical reactions taking place in a cell have an irreversible character. For all these
reactions the greatest organisation and order are characteristic: each reaction is going
at a strictly definite place at a strictly definite time in a strictly definite sequence.
Molecules of ferments are located on membranes of mitochondrias and of the endoplasmatic
net in the order in which reactions are going.
In a cell there are about one thousand ferments, with the
assistance of which two types of reactions are going: of synthesis and of
desintegration. As the main (creating) type of reactions should be considered
reactions of synthesis, in the process of which complex molecular compounds are being
formed, as fng. units filling in fnl. cells of the cell's subsystemic structures. So,
for replacement of each functioned out molecule of protein, that has left this or that
fnl. cell, a new molecule of protein fills the vacated place, by structure and chemical
composition and accordingly by its fnl. features fully identical to the previous fng.
unit. It means, that a newly synthesised fng. unit is able (or should be able) to take
an identical part in any algorithms, characteristic for a given fnl. cell.
The synthesis of fng. units is carried out with the assistance
of the functioning of the cell's special subsystems on the basis of the coded gene
recording of DNA. Fluctuatal deviations, which happen during this, in case of their
positive effect are being recorded by the reverse connection in a gene recording and
serve to the purposes of a further perfection of a given systemic structure. In the
event of a negative effect from a newly synthesised fng. unit the implementation of
a part of fnl. algorithms is being violated and in case the system is not able to
eliminate that, the unproper functioning of an appropriate subsystem can result in the